The Berlin Airlift
Feeding a City by Air for Fifteen Months
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This audiobook covers the history of Germany from 1945 to 1990, including the Berlin Blockade and the role of military logistics in sustaining the city. It explores the work of Gail Halvorsen, known as the Candy Bomber, and the contributions of the Air National Guard. The book details how RAF Gatow Airport served as a key hub for the operation.
The story includes the history of Berlin's Tempelhof Airport, the famous "raisin bombers," and the broader political consequences that led to the founding of West Germany. Anyone interested in Cold War history will find this account both informative and compelling.
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Overview
The Berlin Blockade began on 24 June 1948 when the Soviet Union blocked all land routes to West Berlin, demanding the Western Allies abandon the new Deutsche Mark. In response, the Western powers organized the Berlin Airlift, called the Berliner Luftbrücke in German, which ran from 26 June 1948 to 30 September 1949. American and British aircraft delivered more than 13,000 tons of supplies daily, making over 200,000 landings. One part of the effort, Operation Little Vittles, involved candy-dropping planes nicknamed "raisin bombers," which brought joy to children. The blockade ended on 12 May 1949 because of economic problems in East Berlin, though air support continued briefly. The U.S. Air Force delivered 1,783,573 tons and the RAF 541,937 tons, for a total of 2,334,374 tons across 278,228 flights. At its height, a plane landed in West Berlin every thirty seconds. Seventeen American and eight British aircraft were lost during the mission, with 101 fatalities recorded, mostly from accidents. The blockade marked a major moment in Cold War tensions and helped align West Berlin with the U.S. and Britain, influencing NATO's expansion into West Germany years later.
Potsdam Agreement and division of Berlin
From 17 July to 8 August 1945, Allies met in Potsdam to divide Germany into four zones controlled by US, Britain, France, and Soviet Union. Berlin, located deep within Soviet zone, was split into four parts with Western powers controlling west and Soviets the east. City's fate was tied to Allied Control Council in Berlin including military governors from each zone, meant to govern entire country as one economic unit. No formal agreement gave Western powers access to Berlin, only verbal understanding between Marshal Zhukov, General Clay, and Sir Robert Weeks. In November 1945, Council approved written agreement allowing three air corridors for Western planes to reach city. These corridors were 20 miles wide and controlled by four-power Air Safety Centre. Meanwhile, Soviet authorities in eastern zone merged Communist and Social Democratic parties into Socialist Unity Party (SED) and began removing factories, equipment, and skilled workers to Soviet Union.
Growing Tensions (1945–1947)
In June 1945, Stalin told German communist leaders he planned to slowly weaken British position in their zone, expected U.S. to leave within a couple of years, and believed nothing would stop unified Germany under Soviet control. By early 1946, Soviet leaders told visiting Bulgarian and Yugoslav delegations that Germany had to be both Soviet and communist. Berlin became center of rivalry between U.S. and USSR as each tried to shape Europe according to their vision. As Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov said, "What happens to Berlin, happens to Germany; what happens to Germany, happens to Europe." City's population dropped from 4.3 million to 2.8 million after heavy damage and harsh conditions. In Soviet zone, locals resisted with protests and elections that overwhelmingly chose non-Communists. Soviets allowed only three air corridors for Berlin, and in 1946 stopped sending agricultural goods from eastern Germany. In response, American commander Lucius D. Clay halted industrial shipments from western Germany to Soviets. Soviets then began public relations campaign against U.S. policy and blocked work across all four occupation zones.
Marshall Plan and Soviet reaction
After the war, American planners recognized that a strong, allied Germany would be key to rebuilding Western Europe. In January 1947, James F. Byrnes stepped down as Secretary of State, and George C. Marshall took over, tasked with consolidating power in Western Germany. President Truman pursued a policy of containment to resist Soviet expansion, which included sending large amounts of money to capitalist countries in Western Europe through the European Recovery Program—later known as the Marshall Plan, introduced in June 1947. The British and U.S. occupation zones were combined into the Bizone on 1 January 1947. At a meeting of the Council of Foreign Ministers in London during November–December 1947, the Allies could not agree on reuniting Germany. Britain and America continued working together, with Bevin and Marshall directing political coordination in Bizonia. By July 1949, the French zone joined, forming the Trizone. Soviet propaganda became increasingly hostile; a poster from 1947 showed a soldier holding a history book warning Uncle Sam to "stop messing around." On 12 June 1947, an article in Pravda by Yuliana Semyonova called America's strategy fascist. The Soviet Writers Union condemned writers who "kowtowed to the West." On 31 July 1947, the Central Committee ordered Literaturnaya Gazeta to criticize and target American way of life.
London Six-Power Conference (1948)
The London 6-Power Conference brought together the UK, US, France, and Benelux nations twice in early 1948 to plan Germany's future while Soviets threatened to disregard outcomes. This produced the London Programme to rebuild Western zones economically and politically. Soviets began stopping Allied trains to Berlin, inspecting passengers. The Allied Control Council met its final session on 20 March 1948; Vasily Sokolovsky, speaking for the Soviets, declared the meeting adjourned when negotiators said they had not yet heard their governments' final decisions. The Soviet delegation then left, ending four-power cooperation. On 25 March, Soviets limited access to Berlin, and by 1 April, all rail cargo required permission from Soviet authorities. General Clay responded by halting military trains and launching the "Little Lift." By June, about twenty flights daily were supplying the garrison, stockpiling enough food for at least eighteen days. At the same time, Soviet planes began attacking Allied air traffic, including a deadly crash on 5 April near RAF Gatow. On 9 April, Soviets ordered American personnel to leave the Eastern zone, cutting off navigation support.
Deutsche Mark
The creation of a stable western German economy depended on reforming the Reichsmark, which had been debased by excessive printing during and after the war. The Soviets continued this trend, leading many Germans to use cigarettes as currency. When the Western Allies announced plans for a new currency, the Soviet Union responded by cutting all land access between West Berlin and West Germany. On 18 June 1948, the U.S., Britain, and France declared that the Deutsche Mark would be introduced on 21 June, but the Soviets refused to allow it in Berlin. The Allies had already brought 250 million DM into the city, and it quickly became the standard currency everywhere. The very next day, Soviet guards stopped trains and delayed shipments, and on 21 June, they halted a U.S. supply train and sent it back. The following day, the Soviets announced their own East German mark, the Ostmark, would be introduced in their zone.
Beginning of the blockade
Stalin's move came on 24 June 1948 when Soviet forces cut off all rail and barge access to Berlin, citing "technical difficulties" on the railways and roads. The Soviets also limited electricity in western areas to only two hours a day, attributing the restriction to "severe shortages of electric current." Though foot traffic and public transportation such as U-Bahn and S-Bahn continued between zones, the air corridors remained open. General Clay suspected that Stalin was bluffing, believing the Soviet Union did not want to start a Third World War and that this action aimed at pressuring the West for concessions. General Curtis LeMay reportedly supported an aggressive response using B-29s with fighter escorts against Soviet air bases while ground troops advanced toward Berlin, but Washington turned down the plan. In reaction, the West imposed a counter-blockade that damaged East Germany's industrial growth by blocking coal and steel shipments.
Phase 1 (26 June – September 1948)
On 25 June 1948, General Clay ordered Operation Vittles, and the next day 32 C-47s flew to Berlin with supplies like milk and medicine. By 28 June, Brigadier General Joseph Smith was named commander of the Berlin Airlift Task Force, and the British started their part calling it Operation Plainfare. The first British flights began that same day, and the U.S. and British worked together using a complex schedule called the "block system" to manage flights. By early July, daily tonnage had grown from 90 to over 1,000 tons, though the effort was far from efficient. The U.S. Air Force was not prepared for such an operation, and by mid-July, the National Security Council questioned whether it could succeed. Then, Maj. Gen. William H. Tunner was appointed to take charge, having previously reorganized the Hump airlift in China. He began overseeing the provisional Airlift Task Force at Wiesbaden on 23 July 1948.
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Overview
From 1945 to 1990, Germany was divided after World War II, with the Berlin Declaration on 5 June 1945 marking the end of the German Reich and start of Allied occupation. The country lost more than a quarter of its pre-war territory, which was given to Poland and the Soviet Union, and millions of Germans were expelled. Around eight million displaced people remained in Germany, including survivors of concentration camps and prisoners of war. By 1949, two separate German states had formed: the Federal Republic of Germany, known as West Germany, and the German Democratic Republic, or East Germany. West Germany became a democratic state with strong ties to the U.S., France, and the UK, while East Germany followed a Soviet-style socialist system under the control of the Socialist Unity Party. Under Chancellor Konrad Adenauer, West Germany joined NATO and the European Economic Community. The Berlin Wall was built in 1961 to stop people fleeing to the West. The two countries were reunified on 3 October 1990 after the fall of the SED and the Peaceful Revolution in East Germany.
Four military occupied zones
At the Potsdam Conference, which lasted from July 17 to August 2, 1945, the Allies officially split Germany into four military zones. The French took the southwest, the British the northwest, the Americans the south, and the Soviet Union controlled the east, bounded by the new Poland-Germany border along the Oder-Neisse line. These zones together were referred to as 'Germany as a whole,' and the four powers agreed in principle to give territory east of this area to Poland and the Soviet Union. Under the Allies’ Berlin Declaration from 1945, the land area of the former German Reich was defined as it stood on December 31, 1937. This meant that all territorial changes from 1938 to 1945 were treated as invalid, including areas like Austria, Danzig, and Memel.
Flight and expulsion of ethnic Germans
At the Potsdam Conference in 1945, the Allies agreed that ethnic Germans in areas now part of Poland and the Soviet Union should be transferred back to Germany. The northern half of East Prussia was assigned to the Soviet Union, pending a final peace conference, and later annexed; the southern half went to Poland, as agreed at the Tehran Conference in 1943. The Potsdam Agreement acknowledged that expulsions were already underway and were straining German occupation zones. It directed the Allied Control Council to examine how these transfers would be distributed among the zones. Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Hungary were instructed to suspend further expulsions while reports were reviewed. Many of those expelled, especially women and children, faced severe mistreatment, with thousands dying in labor camps or during forced relocation. Around 8 million ethnic Germans eventually settled in West Germany, and 3 million in East Germany. This group strongly influenced West German politics, pushing for reunification and compensation, and opposing any recognition of Poland's and the Soviet Union's territorial gains after 1945. In 1990, a final treaty confirmed that these territorial changes were permanent.
Denazification
The occupiers focused heavily on denazification, banning Nazi symbols like the swastika and establishing a Provisional Civil Ensign as Germany's temporary flag, which stayed official until 1949. The U.S., UK, and Soviet Union had agreed at Potsdam to treat Germany as one economic unit with some shared administration, but those plans failed because France blocked central control and both the Soviets and French wanted to take resources from their zones to repair war damage. The policy collapsed fully in 1948 when the Russians blocked West Berlin, sparking the Cold War. At Potsdam, the four powers also agreed that top Nazi leaders should be tried for crimes against humanity—a point they all supported. To keep the Western allies in Berlin, the U.S. agreed to withdraw from Thuringia and Saxony in exchange for dividing Berlin into four sectors. Future President Dwight D. Eisenhower and the U.S. War Department first enforced a strict non-fraternization policy with Germans, but by June 1945, speaking with German children was allowed, then in July adults in certain cases, and finally in September 1945, the whole policy was dropped—only the ban on marriages between Americans and Germans remained until December 1946 and January 1947 respectively.
Industrial disarmament in West Germany
The Western powers' post-war policy toward Germany began with the Morgenthau Plan, proposed by Henry Morgenthau Jr., which called for "pastoralization" of the country. At the Potsdam Conference, the Allies agreed to dismantle German industry, including munitions factories and any civilian industries with military potential. The first plan, from March 1946, aimed to reduce heavy industry to 50% of its 1938 levels by destroying 1,500 plants. Steel production was capped at about 5.8 million tons a year, far below pre-war levels. By 1950, 706 factories in the west had lost equipment, and timber exports from the U.S. zone were heavy, reportedly to destroy Germany's war potential. The Cold War shifted policy; on September 6, 1946, Secretary of State James F. Byrnes repudiated the Morgenthau-influenced approach in his Stuttgart speech. In July 1947, President Harry S. Truman rescinded JCS 1067, replacing it with JCS 1779, which emphasized that a productive Germany was necessary for a stable Europe. Dismantling continued until 1951, and the Petersberg Agreement of November 1949 reduced limits, though full industrial freedom came only after the European Coal and Steel Community was formed in 1951.
Relations with France
In 1946, United States Secretary of State James F. Byrnes said the U.S. supported taking the Saar from Germany because “the United States does not feel that it can deny to France, which has been invaded three times by Germany in 70 years, its claim to the Saar territory.” The Saar was placed under French control in 1946 as the Saar Protectorate and remained so until a referendum returned it to Germany in January 1957. That same year, the London Six-Power conference created the International Authority for the Ruhr as part of an effort to help establish the Federal Republic of Germany. France backed this plan initially, but stopped supporting the IAR in 1951 when West Germany agreed to pool its coal and steel markets within the European Coal and Steel Community. In August 1954, the French parliament voted down a treaty that would have created the European Defense Community, a project they themselves had proposed. Eventually, Germany was allowed to rearm under the Western European Union and later NATO.
Dismantling in East Germany
The Soviet Union carried out a massive industrial dismantling campaign in its occupation zone, far more than what the Western powers did. At first, the Soviets recognized their actions were pushing the German workforce away from the Communist cause. Still, they chose to prioritize the economic struggles within the Soviet Union over building alliances. The allied leaders had agreed on paper to work together economically and politically, but disagreements over reparations quickly damaged hopes for a united Germany in 1945. Stalin suggested $20 billion as enough compensation, but the United States rejected that number. So the Soviets were left with no choice but to take what they could, hurting East Germans in the process. That marked the start of Germany’s formal division.
Marshall Plan and currency reform
The Western Allies grew worried about the worsening economy in their part of Germany, so in 1948 they brought in the Marshall Plan to help rebuild it. At the same time, they introduced a new currency called the Deutsche Mark, ending the inflation that had been out of control. This change had been forbidden under an earlier rule known as JCS 1067. The Soviets didn’t agree with the new money plan. In March 1948, they left the four-power groups that were running Berlin. Then in June, they began blocking all land access to West Berlin, starting what became known as the Berlin Blockade. The Western powers responded by flying in food and fuel instead. The Soviets lifted the blockade after eleven months.
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Overview
Colonel Gail Seymour Halvorsen was a senior officer in the United States Air Force who rose to fame during the Berlin Airlift, when he began dropping candy to German children from the sky. Born in rural Utah, he earned his private pilot's license in 1941 and joined the Army Air Forces in 1942. Assigned to Germany on July 10, 1948, he flew C-47s and C-54s in "Operation Vittles." Without authorization, he started "Operation Little Vittles," sending candy by parachute to boost morale, which made him a national hero. He dropped over 23 tons of candy and was later awarded the Congressional Gold Medal. Beyond the Berlin Airlift, Halvorsen continued humanitarian efforts, conducting candy drops in Bosnia-Herzegovina, Albania, Japan, Guam, and Iraq. He also helped develop reusable spacecraft and commanded Berlin Tempelhof Airport before retiring in 1974 after more than 8,000 flying hours. From 1976 to 1986, he served as Assistant Dean of Student Life at Brigham Young University.
Early life
Gail Seymour Halvorsen was born October 10, 1920, in Salt Lake City, son of Basil K. and Luella Spencer Halvorsen. His family moved to small farms in Rigby, Idaho, and later Garland, Utah, where he spent his youth. He finished high school in 1939 and took classes at Utah State University before earning his private pilot license September 1941 through the Civilian Pilot Training Program. He joined the Civil Air Patrol as a pilot, then enlisted in the United States Army Air Forces in May 1942. He trained in Miami with 25 USAAF cadets and 77 Royal Air Force cadets in Course 19 at the No. 3 British Flying Training School. After finishing training, he was assigned to foreign transport duties in the South Atlantic Theater. Then on July 10, 1948, he was sent to Germany to fly in Operation Vittles, known as the Berlin Airlift.
Operation "Little Vittles"
Lieutenant Gail Halvorsen flew C-54 cargo planes into Berlin during the airlift, and on a July day filming at Tempelhof, he met thirty children behind a fence who had nothing. Touched, he gave them gum and promised more, saying he’d drop it from his plane with a wing-waggle to identify himself. That night, Halvorsen and his crew pooled their candy rations, using handkerchiefs as parachutes. They began weekly drops, which grew into Operation “Little Vittles” on September 22, 1948, after being approved by Lieutenant General William H. Tunner. Support spread across the U.S., with children and candy makers contributing, until college student Mary C. Connors organized the effort. By November, Halvorsen could no longer manage it alone, so he passed leadership to Captain Lawrence Caskey. The operation lasted until May 13, 1949, dropping over 23 tons of candy from more than 250,000 parachutes.
Professional career
After returning home in January 1949, Gail Halvorsen considered leaving the Air Force but stayed after being offered a permanent commission and chance to study. He completed his bachelor's and master's degrees in Aeronautical Engineering at the University of Florida between 1951 and 1952. From 1952 to 1957, he worked as project engineer for cargo aircraft research and development with the Wright Air Development Center. In 1957, he attended the Air Command and Staff College at Maxwell AFB, Alabama, before moving to the Air Force Space Systems Division in Inglewood, California. There, he chaired the selection process for the Titan III launch vehicle program. From 1962 to 1965, he served with the Foreign Technology division of AF Systems Command in Wiesbaden, West Germany. Later, he worked at the Pentagon in the Directorate of Space and Technology, where he helped shape plans for advanced manned spacecraft and the Manned Orbital Laboratory Project. In February 1970, Halvorsen became Commander of the 7350th Air Base Group at Tempelhof Airport in Berlin—the same airfield he had flown to during the Airlift. He also served as the US Air Force Europe Representative in Berlin and earned a master's degree through an on-base program at Wayne State University. His final assignment was as Inspector General at the Ogden Air Materiel Center in Utah, where he retired on August 31, 1974, after 31 years of service and over 8,000 flying hours.
Personal life and death
Gail Halvorsen, known for his work with Operation “Little Vittles” during the Berlin Airlift, was offered two positions after his international fame, but he turned them down to return home to Garland, Utah, where he had been courted by Alta Jolley since 1942. They married in Las Vegas on April 16, 1949. The couple raised five children across the U.S. and Germany as Halvorsen served in the military. After retiring in 1974, they settled in Provo, Utah, where he worked as Assistant Dean of Student Life at BYU from 1976 to 1986. Both were active in the LDS Church, serving missions in London and St. Petersburg. Alta died in 1999; five years later, Halvorsen married his high school sweetheart, Lorraine Pace. He died February 16, 2022, at age 101, in Provo, where he was buried with full military honors.
Legacy
Gail Halvorsen's Berlin Airlift work left lasting impact beyond the city's borders. After official retirement in 1974, he continued serving communities locally and globally. Many children who received sweets during Operation "Little Vittles" saw American pilots as father figures, even though some had previously bombed German cities. Mercedes Wild, who wrote to Halvorsen in 1948 requesting chocolate, later said he "became a father to me at that young age." After his death in 2022, Berlin mayor Franziska Giffey noted that "Halvorsen's deeply human act has never been forgotten." In 2016, Halvorsen founded the Gail S. Halvorsen Aviation Education Foundation with his daughter Denise Halvorsen Williams and friend James Stewart, later renamed The Candy Bomber Foundation. The organization promotes aviation and STEM education for young people. In June 2022, Senator Mike Lee proposed legislation to rename the Provo Vet Center in his honor, rededicating it on November 21, 2022.
Awards
Gail Halvorsen was recognized in 1949 with the Cheney Award from General Hoyt Vandenberg for his role in Operation “Little Vittles,” and went on to receive the Legion of Merit, the Air Force Sergeants Association’s Americanism Award, and the Freedom Award from Provo, Utah. In 1974, he was awarded Germany’s highest decoration, the Großes Bundesverdienstkreuz, and in 2015 received the General Lucius D. Clay Medal from the Federation of German-American Clubs. Schools and facilities across Germany have been dedicated to him, including the Gail S. Halvorsen Elementary at Rhein-Main Air Base. He was named Grand Marshal of the German-American Steuben Parade in New York City in 2008 and in 2014 became a recipient of the Congressional Gold Medal, the highest honor Congress can bestow upon a civilian.
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Overview
Berlin Tempelhof Airport was one of the first airports in Berlin, opened in 1923 and operating until 2008. Originally built in 1927, it was rebuilt during the 1930s under the Nazi government. It was among Europe’s three major pre-World War II airports, along with London’s Croydon and Paris–Le Bourget. Tempelhof became famous as the center of the Berlin Airlift from 1948 to 1949. Its main building once ranked among the twenty largest in the world, and it housed the world’s smallest duty-free shop. The airport closed on October 30, 2008, after a failed referendum against its closure. The site is now a public park called Tempelhofer Feld and was later used as an emergency refugee camp.
Function
Tempelhof Airport, often called the "City Airport," housed wide-body jets including the Boeing 747, Lockheed L-1011 Tristar, and Lockheed C-5A Galaxy. The C-5A Galaxy first appeared on 17 September 1971, flying in from Dover Air Force Base for that year's open-house exhibition. A decade later, Pan Am brought the Boeing 747SP Clipper Great Republic for static display at the U.S. Air Force airshow on 18 September 1976. Compared to Brandenburg and Tegel, Tempelhof was relatively small with two east–west runways and single oval taxiway, main terminal on north-western side. The airport handled aircraft up to Boeing 757 or Airbus A320 size. After closure, preservation efforts continued between 2012-2015. In September 2015, during European migrant crisis, Tempelhof was announced as emergency refugee shelter accommodating at least 1,200 people in two former hangars.
History
Berlin's Tempelhof Airport site was once Knights Templar land, later used as a Prussian parade field until World War I, then became an airport in 1923 when French aviator Armand Zipfel made the first flight demonstration there, followed by Orville Wright the same year. Deutsche Luft Hansa was founded there in 1926, and the first terminal opened in 1929. During the Nazi era, Albert Speer's reconstruction plan led to a new terminal designed by Ernst Sagebiel, completed between 1936 and 1941. The building, described by Sir Norman Foster as "the mother of all airports," was meant to symbolize Hitler's vision of Germania. It featured a 1.2-kilometre-long façade of shell limestone and was designed like an eagle in flight, with semicircular hangars forming its wings. The airport served as a major hub before the war, with up to 92 daily flights in 1938–1939. The new terminal, intended as Deutsche Luft Hansa's headquarters, was never fully finished due to World War II and remained under construction until 1945.
World War II
In September 1939, German civil aviation halted due to war fears, but by March 1940, the old 1927 terminal at Tempelhof reopened. During the war, the site was used to assemble aircraft for the Luftwaffe, with parts brought in from across Berlin and engines trucked in. The Luftwaffe didn't use it as a base, except for occasional emergency landings. In April 1945, Deutsche Luft Hansa flew its final flights, with the last one to Madrid shot down over Germany. Oberst Rudolf Böttger, the German commander, chose suicide over destroying the airfield. Soviet forces took Tempelhof in early May 1945, searching buildings for valuables and documents. They accidentally blew up a bomb shelter storing celluloid films, turning it into a furnace. On 8 May, the surrender signing took place at Tempelhof. By July 1945, American forces had taken control of the airport under the Yalta agreements, and repairs began. Civil flights resumed in February 1946.
Berlin Airlift
On 20 June 1948, Soviet authorities stopped all land and water access to western-controlled Berlin, leaving only three narrow air corridors for supplies. The Western Powers chose to feed the city by air, launching Operation Vittles on 26 June when USAF C-47s delivered just 80 tons of food into Tempelhof. The effort grew with help from Navy and RAF planes, and private British airlines like BEA, Air Charter, Eagle Aviation, and Skyways. By October, the Allies formed the Combined Airlift Task Force under Maj. Gen. William H. Tunner at Tempelhof. American engineers built new runways to handle the growing traffic, and the old terminal was torn down to make room for more unloading. The last transport landed on 30 September 1949. Tempelhof also became known for Operation Little Vittles, when pilot Gail Halvorsen began dropping candy by parachute to children, a gesture that grew into a beloved Berlin tradition.
Cold War
As Cold War tensions rose in the late 1950s and 1960s, access to West Berlin remained difficult by land and air, keeping the city under constant strain. Tempelhof Airport served as the main hub for American military transport planes reaching West Berlin throughout this time. In 1969, Gail Halvorsen, known as the original Candy Bomber and a pilot from the Berlin Airlift, returned to Berlin as commander of the Tempelhof airbase. After the fall of the Berlin Wall and German reunification, American forces withdrew. The USAF 7350th Air Base Group at Tempelhof was inactivated in June 1993. In July 1994, with President Clinton present, the British, French, and American forces in Berlin were deactivated in a ceremony at McNair Barracks. The Western Allies handed control of a united Berlin back to the German government. The U.S. Army closed its Berlin Army Aviation Detachment at Tempelhof in August 1994, ending nearly fifty years of American military presence in the city.
U.S. Army Aviation
In 1951, the U.S. Army stationed an aviation unit with three Hiller OH-23A Raven helicopters at Berlin’s Tempelhof Airport. That group later became known as the Berlin Brigade Aviation Detachment. The OH-23As were soon replaced by Bell OH-13 Siouxs. Over time, other helicopters arrived: Sikorsky H-19 Chikasaws from 1958 to 1964, Sikorsky H-34 Choctaws from 1962 to 1964, Bell UH-1Bs from 1964 to 1971, and finally Bell UH-1Hs from May 1971 until August 1994. Meanwhile, fixed-wing aircraft also operated at Tempelhof, including Cessna O-1 Bird Dogs from 1965 to 1975, De Havilland Canada U-6 Beavers from 1968 to January 1980, Cessna O-2As from 1975 to 1979, Pilatus UV-20A Chiricahuas from 1979 to 1991, Beechcraft U-8D Seminoles from the 1960s, Beechcraft U-21s through the 1970s and 1980s, and again from 1991 to 1994, along with Beechcraft C-12Cs from 1986 to 1991.
Early operations and the Berlin Blockade
American Overseas Airlines, then the overseas division of American Airlines, began flying passengers through Tempelhof Airport in 1946, with a route from New York via Shannon, Amsterdam, and Frankfurt. The same airline launched West Berlin’s first direct domestic flight to Frankfurt's Rhein-Main Airport in March 1948. During the Berlin Blockade, which lasted from June 26, 1948, until May 12, 1949, AOA was the only commercial airline to keep its full schedule at Tempelhof throughout the entire blockade.
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Overview
During the Soviet Berlin Blockade of 1948 and 1949, Western Allied forces airlifted supplies into West Berlin, with American and British transport planes delivering food and fuel to keep the city alive. The citizens of Berlin gave these aircraft a nickname, calling them Raisin Bombers, or in American English, Candy Bombers. These planes carried not just necessities but also small acts of kindness, like candy, to lift the spirits of a blocked city. The operation lasted for over a year, a testament to the determination and ingenuity of those involved.
History
The candy drops began when First Lieutenant Gail Halvorsen, visiting Berlin’s Tempelhof Airport, gave children gum and promised more, saying he’d wiggle his wings to signal his approach. On his next flight, he released candy bars with handkerchiefs as parachutes, even though it broke Air Force rules. Newspapers had already reported the act, so it was allowed to continue. General Tunner named the effort “Operation Little Vittles.” Other pilots joined in, helped by the American Confectioners Association and U.S. children who sent candy and fabric. Altogether, dozens of pilots dropped about 21 tons of chocolate from roughly 250,000 parachutes. The name Rosinenbomber, meaning “raisin bombers,” is now used for aircraft like the Douglas C-54 Skymaster and C-47 Skytrain that took part in the Berlin Airlift.
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Overview
The Air National Guard, also called the Air Guard, is a reserve force in the United States Air Force, serving as the air militia for each state, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Along with the Army National Guard, it makes up the National Guard of each region. The Air National Guard has two main roles: when activated under a state governor's authority, it acts as a militia, but when federalized by presidential order, it becomes part of the active Air Force. It’s jointly managed by the states and the National Guard Bureau, which oversees both the Army and Air Force components of the U.S. National Guard.
Origins
The modern National Guard traces its roots to December 13, 1636, when the Massachusetts Bay Colony created three militia regiments to defend against Native Americans and European threats. This model evolved into state militias, which became the Army National Guard after independence. Since the Air Force originated from the Army, a separate Air National Guard formed in 1947, concurrent with the Air Force's establishment. Aviation units within the Guard predated World War I; in 1908, members of the 1st Company, Signal Corps, New York National Guard organized an "aeronautical corps" at the Park Avenue Armory. By 1910, they had purchased their first aircraft. During the Mexican Border Crisis of 1915, Captain Raynal Cawthorne Bolling led the 1st Aero Company, New York National Guard, which became the Air National Guard's oldest unit. In April 1917, when the U.S. entered World War I, the War Department did not mobilize Guard air units, so individual volunteers joined the Army Air Service. Tennessee guardsman Reed Chambers flew with Eddie Rickenbacker in April 1918 on the first combat mission commanded by an American squadron of American pilots. Four National Guard aviators—Chambers, Field Kindley, Reed Landis, and Martinus Stenseth—became aces, and 2nd Lieutenant Erwin R. Bleckley was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for heroism as an aerial observer.
Interwar period
After World War I, National Guard aviation became a permanent military part despite initial Army resistance. In 1921, the 109th Observation Squadron of the Minnesota National Guard became the first postwar air unit to receive federal recognition. During the interwar years, 29 observation squadrons were formed either as part of infantry divisions or assigned to Army corps aviation. Captain Charles A. Lindbergh, who flew with the 110th Observation Squadron of the Missouri National Guard, became the most famous National Guard pilot of that time. Trained by the Army, he joined the 110th in 1925 and later led an airmail venture with fellow pilots. After his trans-Atlantic solo flight in 1927, Lindbergh spoke fondly of his Guard service. In 1940–1941, about 4,800 National Guard aviation personnel were mobilized, many from observation squadrons. They helped expand the Army's air arm during a critical time. Most Guard units were federalized into the regular Army Air Corps and re-equipped with modern aircraft, losing their original identity. Some early squadrons kept their cohesion, but most were transformed into reconnaissance, liaison, fighter, or bombardment units. They served in every major theater of World War II. One significant contribution was training and leading volunteer airmen in the AAF. Lt Col Addison E. Baker, a guardsman from Akron, Ohio, exemplified this role. On 1 August 1943, he commanded the 93rd Bombardment Group during a dangerous low-level attack on oil refineries in Ploiești, Romania. He was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for his leadership.
Post-World War II Air National Guard
The Air National Guard you know today didn’t exist during World War II. After the war, Army Air Forces leaders wanted a large active-duty air force and doubted the state-controlled National Guard. But political pressure and budget cuts forced changes. In 1946, inactivated U.S. Army Air Force units were transferred to the National Guard Bureau, re-designated, and allotted to states and territories to form new Air National Guard units. By 1947, the Air National Guard was officially established alongside the U.S. Air Force. Initially, it had 58,000 members and 84 flying squadrons, mostly with obsolete P-51 and P-47 fighters. Many units were poorly trained and unprepared for combat when mobilized.
Korean War
During the Korean War, about 45,000 Air National Guard members were called up, with 80 percent of the force mobilized. Sixty-six of the Air Guard's ninety-two flying squadrons were activated, along with many support units. Once in federal service, they proved unprepared for combat, with some units taking three to six months to become ready—and some never did. Still, they made significant contributions, with the 136th and 116th Fighter-Bomber Wings flying F-84 Thunderjets and compiling strong records. Air guardsmen flew 39,530 combat sorties, destroying 39 enemy aircraft. Ten-one were killed or missing in action. Four air guardsmen—Captains Robert Love, Clifford D. Jolley, and Robinson Risner, plus Major James Hagerstrom—became aces. The Korean War experience led leaders to take the Air National Guard more seriously, resulting in its integration into major commands like ADC, SAC, and TAC. Deployments began in late 1950, reinforcing NATO commitments in Europe. Units were later demobilized in July 1952, reactivated in January 1953, and returned to their states.
Runway alert program
After the Korean War ended in July 1953, the Cold War continued with the Soviet Union. The Air Force had failed badly during earlier mobilizations, so it needed to work with the Air National Guard and completely restructure its reserve system. In response, the Air Force and reserve components created new methods like the runway alert program. The Air Division chief at the National Guard Bureau wanted to give fighter pilots extra training after their units were disbanded. At the same time, Air Defense Command lacked enough active duty units to protect the U.S. against Soviet air threats. So it was proposed that Air National Guard pilots from strategically placed units perform air intercept missions and simulate attacks on Strategic Air Command bombers. Starting on 1 March 1953, the experiment used men from the 138th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron at Hancock Field in Syracuse, New York, and the 194th Fighter-Bomber Squadron at Hayward in California. By August, eight squadrons were on standing alert with volunteers working 14-hour shifts. Then in October, nine more joined. The program required planes and pilots to scramble within minutes around the clock. At its height in the mid-1950s, all 70 Air National Guard fighter squadrons took part, though that number dropped to 25 by 1961 due to budget cuts. Most alerts involved intercepting SAC bombers, but a few real scrambles were for commercial planes that had gone off course. This 1953 experiment marked the start of the Air National Guard's modern homeland defense role—the first time reserve units were regularly integrated into major peacetime Air Force missions using volunteers.
Aircraft modernization
After World War II, the Air National Guard shifted from being a combat reserve to embracing new missions, even as its fighter squadrons flew obsolete piston-driven planes. In 1955, the 129th Air Resupply Squadron became the first special operations unit in the Guard, equipped with C-46 Commandos. As jets arrived, many Guard fighter units couldn’t switch due to short runways or local resistance. Some were replaced with transport aircraft instead, keeping experienced pilots flying. In 1956, New Jersey's 150th Air Transport Squadron (Light) became the first all-airlift unit in the Guard. By 1960, several ANG units traded fighters for C-97 Stratofreighters. The Guard also took on air refueling duties, receiving its first KC-97 tankers in 1961, with squadrons in Illinois, Wisconsin, and Ohio converting to that mission.
Cold War
In 1961, after the Berlin Wall went up, President Kennedy mobilized 11 Air National Guard fighter squadrons to Europe, with about 21,000 guardsmen called up. By August 1962, those units returned home, but soon after, the Cuban Missile Crisis prompted ANG fighter units to train for quick deployments and support global airlift missions. During the Vietnam War, although President Johnson didn’t mobilize most reserves before 1968, Air National Guard airlift units flew regularly to Japan and South Vietnam starting in 1966. From 1965 to 1969, ANG aeromedical evacuation flights also helped free up active duty resources. After the Tet Offensive in 1968, four ANG fighter squadrons were sent to Vietnam, and during the Pueblo Crisis in Korea, two more ANG squadrons were mobilized. In July 1970, guardsmen from the Pennsylvania ANG’s 193rd Tactical Electronic Warfare Squadron flew EC-121 Super Constellations to Thailand.
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Overview
RAF Gatow was a British Royal Air Force station in south-western Berlin, located in the district of Gatow, west of the Havel river in Spandau. It was the site of the only known operational use of flying boats in central Europe and later hosted photographic reconnaissance missions using de Havilland Canada DHC-1 Chipmunks over East Germany. Part of the former airfield is now called General Steinhoff-Kaserne and houses the Luftwaffenmuseum der Bundeswehr, the German Air Force Museum. Nearby, the Hans-Carossa-Gymnasium and housing for government employees of the Federal Republic of Germany occupy another section of the old base. Since 2003, that portion has been part of Berlin-Kladow.
Luftwaffe use, 1934–1945
The airfield at Gatow began as a Luftwaffe facility in 1934 and 1935, built to serve as a staff and technical college called Luftkriegsschule 2 Berlin-Gatow, inspired by RAF Cranwell. It officially opened on 1 April 1936 and was renamed Luftkriegsschule 2 on 15 January 1940. The school had satellite airfields in Güterfelde and Reinsdorf. By October 1944, flying training had stopped due to fuel shortages. From 5 March 1945, cadets were redirected to train as paratroops for ground combat. Barracks blocks were named after notable German airmen from World War I, each with the airman’s bust above the entrance door. Architect Ernst Sagebiel, who also designed Tempelhof Airport, was responsible for the layout. Light bulbs in the main hangars, many dating back to the 1930s, remained visible during the airfield's time as RAF Gatow until 1994.
1945–1948
In late April 1945, as the Second World War ended in Europe, the airfield at Gatow was occupied by the Red Army. After the Potsdam Conference, Soviet forces gave part of the airfield and access roads, known as the Seeburger Zipfel, to the British in exchange for West-Staaken on 30 August 1945. The first Royal Air Force landing at Gatow was by Avro Anson PW698 on 2 July 1945 at 11:55. Initially called Intermediate Landing Place No. 19, the airfield became RAF Gatow on 19 August 1945, with the motto Pons Heri Pons Hodie — A bridge yesterday, a bridge today. Among those who flew in was navigator Errol Barrow, later Prime Minister of Barbados, who served under Sir Sholto Douglas, the Commander-in-Chief of the British occupation zone in Germany. In 1946, British European Airways began scheduled flights from Northolt to Hamburg and Gatow using DC-3s and Vikings.
Berlin Airlift, 1948–1949
RAF Gatow played a key role in the Berlin Airlift, its modernized runway completed in March 1947 with German workers, and it became one of three main airfields supplying the city alongside Tempelhof and Tegel. The base handled about 150 Dakotas and 40 Yorks at first, reaching 995 tons daily by July 18. Aircraft from the RAF, U.S. Air Force, RAAF, RCAF, RNZAF, and South African Air Force all flew into Gatow. In June 1980, the RAAF presented a Dakota to commemorate its role; it was given the RAF serial number ZD215. By mid-December, the RAF had landed 100,000 tons, and in April 1949, commercial airlines joined under British European Airways’ coordination. The base also hosted flying boats from Finkenwerder, including Short Sunderlands and Hythes, used for salt transport. A novel by Hammond Innes was partially set there, accurately describing the station.
1949–1994
After the Berlin Blockade, RAF Gatow became home to the British Army's Berlin Infantry Brigade and was ready to serve again as a supply base if needed. In 1951, BEA moved to Tempelhof, where most commercial flights to West Berlin were based. Gatow hosted royal visits and trooping flights by British airlines under MoD contracts. The station's Flight used two DHC-1 Chipmunks for maintaining British airspace rights, and also monitored Soviet air traffic from 1950 onward. These aircraft took part in covert missions with BRIXMIS, later known as Operation Schooner and then Operation Nylon, requiring notification to the Berlin Air Safety Center. After the Berlin Wall fell, reconnaissance flights stopped, and the Chipmunks were sent to RAF Laarbruch. One returned to Tempelhof in 1994 and is now at the Alliiertenmuseum. From 1970, Gatow also hosted the UK's Army Air Corps and a signals intelligence unit monitoring Warsaw Pact communications.
Escapes to Gatow from East Germany
In April 1978, East German brothers Lothar and Dieter Weber flew a Zlin Z-42M aircraft registered DM-WNX from the Gesellschaft für Sport und Technik to RAF Gatow. The escape had been planned over three years, and the plane was later returned to East Germany by Glienicker Brücke, bearing painted slogans like "Wish you were here." Four days later, on 24 June 1979, an East German glider landed at RAF Gatow with its pilot seeking political asylum. The glider was returned four days after that, and the rudder control lock carried the message "remove before the next escape." Then, on 15 July 1987, Thomas Krüger flew a Zlin Z-42M, registration DDR-WOH, also from the Gesellschaft für Sport und Technik. His first words to RAF Police were a request for political asylum. He was handed over to civil authorities and received West German citizenship. The aircraft was dismantled and returned by road to East Germany, complete with humorous slogans painted on by RAF airmen such as "Wish you were here," "Come back soon." DDR-WOH is still flying today, but since 1991 under registration D-EWOH.
East German invasion plans
The closest military neighbor to RAF Gatow was a unit of the National People's Army from East Germany, positioned right across from the airfield, behind the section of the Berlin Wall that ran along its western edge. From the control tower, it was clearly visible. That portion of the wall wasn’t actually a wall but a wire fence, which East Germany called a “military courtesy,” though nobody at Gatow believed it. They suspected it was meant to aid an invasion. This assumption was confirmed after German reunification, when East German plans for taking West Berlin—codenamed "Operation CENTRE"—were discovered. Grenzregiment 34 "Hanno Günther" of the Grenztruppen der DDR was assigned to seize RAF Gatow. The invasion plans were revised even into 1990, long after it was clear East Germany would soon disappear.
Closure
After Germany was reunified, the British handed over control of RAF Gatow on 18 June 1994. That same month, Station Flight and its two Chipmunk T.10s were disbanded. The airfield was returned to the German Air Force on 7 September 1994. It remained open for only a brief time before closing to air traffic in 1995. The western part of the runways was later demolished to make way for housing, leaving just the eastern sections cut diagonally across the field. Today, those remaining portions are used for an outdoor aircraft display. The story of RAF Gatow and the Western forces in Berlin from 1945 through 1994 is preserved at the Allied Museum.
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Overview
Military logistics has ancient roots, going back to Neolithic times when food and water were basic army needs. Early soldiers used hunting tools like spears and bows, with small forces due to supply difficulties. By the Iron Age, animals such as horses and oxen carried supplies, though sea transport was cheaper than land routes. Large armies appeared in Europe starting in the late sixteenth century, forcing reliance on plundering local resources that limited strategic movement. Napoleon made logistics central to strategy, spreading his corps wide to draw supplies and using daily forage parties. Nineteenth-century innovations like canning, refrigeration, steamships, and railways improved supply chains, while industrial warfare in World War I increased ammunition consumption. The twentieth century brought motor vehicles and aircraft as new options, though air transport remained costly and limited. The 1948 Berlin Airlift demonstrated how airlifts could sustain a city under siege, and helicopters became essential for rough terrain. As weapons grew more complex, so did the role of logistics personnel.
Definition
Military logistics covers the science of organizing and executing how forces move and stay operational. In its broadest form, it includes everything from creating and getting supplies, storing them, moving them, and handing them out. It also involves fixing equipment, taking people where they need to go, building and running bases, providing services, and keeping troops healthy. All of these tasks are part of the larger picture of how military operations function.
Antiquity
The most basic needs of an army are food and water, and early armies were small due to supply difficulties. By 1150 BCE, Olmecs of Mesoamerica were making obsidian weapons that weren't hunting tools or farming implements. Assyria developed a standing army by 700 BCE, using iron and cavalry, and could field up to 50,000 men, operating up to 500 kilometers from base. In 600 CE, Chinese general Zheng Rentai led 14,000 cavalry through a desert with no food, forcing troops to eat horses and each other—only 800 survived. Alexander the Great's father, Philip II, banned carts to keep armies mobile, and Alexander used horses, mules, and camels, though carts carried more weight, they were slower and less reliable. The Roman army had a system where squads carried tents, tools, and grain using mules, with each squad carrying about 200 kilograms. Each soldier got around 3,400 calories daily, and an army of 60,000 needed 95,000 liters of water for men and 720,000 liters for animals. The Romans built a road network across their empire, but shipping grain by sea was cheaper than overland. Polybius advised commanders to know ship travel distances and seasons, and Xerxes moved his army by sea during the Persian invasion of Greece.
Middle Ages
After the fall of the Roman Empire, European military organisation changed as armies became more decentralized under feudalism, where local troops were supported by their lords using household resources. During Charlemagne's time and the Ottonian dynasty in Germany, some households built permanent storage and living spaces for soldiers. In Anglo-Saxon England, King Ine introduced a tax in kind called the feorm to fund troops without cash. Medieval soldiers often supplied themselves through foraging or looting, especially during sieges, though commanders sometimes provided food. The Carolingians required soldiers to feed themselves for three months, then fed them free if campaigns continued. At Crécy in 1346, English archers shot half a million arrows during a seven-week battle. Vikings targeted monasteries with stored grain and supplies, using longships and merchant vessels called knerrir to carry provisions and loot. They established supply bases like during the Siege of Paris in 885–886. The Mongols relied on livestock such as horses, sheep, and cattle, consuming milk, meat, and organs, with collapsible tents for shelter. Beasts of burden like horses, mules, donkeys, and camels carried supplies, with specific daily food requirements. In India, oxen drawn by banjaras were used, while in the Middle East and Central Asia, camels were common. River transport was also key, using ships like the Nordic-type or Utrecht-type craft.
Sixteenth century
Between 1530 and 1710, European armies grew enormously, with some forces reaching 100,000 or more soldiers. This expansion came not just from more troops but also from camp followers and massive baggage trains—averaging one wagon for every fifteen men. Most armies were made up of mercenaries who had to supply themselves, often relying on local markets or commissioners sent ahead to arrange provisions. Armies moved mainly along rivers like the Volga, which helped transport heavy artillery that required hundreds of horses and traveled at half the speed of the rest of the force. The Ottoman Empire developed a strong logistical system using roads from Constantinople and the Danube River, enabling troops to march 970 kilometers in six weeks, drawing on forty depots along the way. Supplies included biscuit and mutton, but flooding and attacks on supply ships sometimes hindered their efforts, as seen during the siege of Vienna in 1529 and the Long Turkish War from 1593 to 1606.
Seventeenth century
By the mid-seventeenth century, Michel Le Tellier, French Secretary of State for War, began military reforms to fix persistent supply problems. He created formulas to calculate needed supplies, standardized contracts with suppliers, and formed a specialist vehicle-park to carry a few days’ worth of rations while armies moved. His son Louvois continued these efforts, guaranteeing each soldier two pounds of bread daily and organizing permanent magazines overseen by local governors. These magazines stocked frontier towns and field armies, especially during sieges. Armies often had to rely on plunder when operating in enemy territory, which limited their movement and made prolonged campaigns difficult. For example, Mons could not be besieged in 1684 due to lack of forage, but Louvois had purchased 900,000 rations of fodder in advance for the 1691 siege. Supplying large armies was a major challenge—armies of 60,000 needed 90,000 rations including camp followers, requiring 61 tonnes of bread daily. This meant sixty ovens and 240 bakers, plus fuel and bricks for construction. Local mills were vulnerable to enemy attack, so handmills were often necessary. Fortresses like Maastricht and Liège served as key supply bases, supporting large armies for months. Military uniforms also emerged during this time, introduced in Britain with the New Model Army, and clothing contracts became centralized, though payments were often delayed, sometimes by years.
Eighteenth century
In 1704, the Duke of Marlborough led his army from the Netherlands to the Danube via the Rhine and Neckar rivers, moving through prosperous land where Colonel William Cadogan, his Quartermaster General, paid fair prices for supplies in gold, encouraging locals to sell and bring goods to collection points. This was managed through a contract given to Sir Solomon de Medina to buy supplies using local agents. The 400-kilometre march wore out boots, but these were also provided, so the army arrived ready for the Battle of Blenheim. Marlborough's opponent, Marshal Tallard, faced logistical trouble, advancing without prepositioned supplies. Populations often saw armies as disasters, hoping they'd leave quickly. Europe had poor roads, and weather could make travel impossible. Bridges were rare and easily destroyed, with rivers often blocking passage. The Chinese used agricultural wealth from eastern China to support distant campaigns, like those against the Russians at Albazin and in the Dzungar–Qing Wars, where logistical problems frustrated expeditions to Tibet. During the American Revolutionary War, the Americans had a young population and surplus food but lacked roads, wagons, and transport infrastructure, hindering their ability to maintain large forces. After the war, the British reorganised military supply management, completing this in 1793–1794 when naval Victualling and Transport Boards took over. This system built on experience from supplying the Falkland Islands garrison between 1767 and 1772, enabling expeditions to places like Australia, Nova Scotia, and Sierra Leone. It helped launch large-scale military efforts during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars and supported global colonial garrisons, though setbacks in Sri Lanka and the Ashanti Empire showed that logistics still posed challenges.
Napoleonic wars
Napoleon built logistics into his military strategy, spreading forces across wide fronts to draw supplies from far and wide. His armies didn't rely on foraging like earlier ones; instead, they carried their own ammunition, with 2,500 of 4,500 wagons assigned to artillery rounds. Each soldier carried 60 to 80 rounds, and divisions had 97,000 in reserve. Support troops were always with each unit—like a British Royal Horse Artillery troop in 1813, which included farriers, smiths, and wheelwrights. In 1805, the French army of 200,000 was well-provisioned by allies, especially Bavaria, which turned Augsburg into a major supply hub. The French reimbursed allies for food and supplies, using vouchers when demands were too great. Napoleon also set up depots, such as one at Passau, to transport provisions down the Danube to Vienna before Austerlitz. But this system faltered in Spain, where guerrillas disrupted supply lines, and especially in Russia in 1812, where Clausewitz observed how hard it was to maintain long supply routes through a poor and hostile land.
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