The Book That Was Copied
How the Bible Was Written, Translated and Transmitted
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This guide explores how the Hebrew Bible developed through multiple copies and translations. It traces the formation of the biblical canon and examines how scholars study ancient texts. The book covers major translation efforts including the Vulgate, the King James Version, and modern committees that produce today's Bibles.
It also discusses how different versions handle difficult passages and explains why translators make certain choices. Each chapter focuses on specific translation decisions and their historical context.
Readers who want to understand how our Bible came to be will find this straightforward overview helpful.
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Overview
The Bible, a collection of religious texts central to Christianity, Judaism, and Islam, includes instructions, stories, poetry, letters, and prophecies compiled into official biblical canons by different religious communities. The Hebrew Bible, originally written in Hebrew with some portions in Aramaic, is organized into three parts—Torah, Nevi'im, and Ketuvim—that together form the Tanakh. The Masoretic Text, a medieval version serving as the authoritative text for modern Rabbinic Judaism with oldest sections dating to around 1200 BCE, derives from this collection. The Christian Bible splits into Old and New Testaments, with the Old Testament drawing from the Hebrew Bible and including deuterocanonical books, while the New Testament contains gospels, letters, and other texts about Jesus written in Koine Greek during the first century CE. With over five billion copies sold, it is the best-selling book ever, shaping Western and global culture, translated into approximately half of the world's languages.
Etymology
The word “Bible” comes from the Koine Greek term τὰ βιβλία, meaning “the books,” with the singular βιβλίον, biblion, literally translating to “scroll.” This term originated as a diminutive of βύβλος byblos, referring to Egyptian papyrus, likely named after the Phoenician port Byblos where such materials were exported to Greece. Hellenistic Jews used τὰ βιβλία to describe their sacred texts. John Chrysostom, in his Homilies on Matthew between 386 and 388 CE, appears to be the first to apply this phrase to both the Old and New Testaments together. The Latin biblia sacra, meaning “holy books,” translates the Greek τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια. Over time, medieval Latin biblia came to function as a feminine singular noun, eventually being adopted into vernacular languages across Western Europe.
Development and history
The Bible's development is complex and still not fully understood. The oldest texts began as oral songs and stories passed down through generations. Scholars today are just starting to explore how writing, performance, and memory intersected in their creation. These texts were shaped by people living through vastly different conditions—some in nomadic life, others under monarchy or exile, even during the rise and fall of empires like Assyria, Persia, and Rome. The oldest parts may date back to around 1200 BCE, and the Dead Sea Scrolls, found in 1947, are the earliest complete copies, from between 250 BCE and 100 CE. Originally written on papyrus scrolls in paleo-Hebrew, the texts later shifted to square script during the Babylonian exile. By the eighth century CE, vowel signs were added by the Masoretes. The Hebrew Bible was compiled into three main sections—the Torah, Nevi'im, and Ketuvim—by different religious communities over centuries, with the final canon forming between the second century BCE and second century CE.
Hebrew Bible
The Hebrew Bible used by modern Jewish communities today is the Masoretic Text, developed near the end of the Talmudic period, around 300 to 500 CE. In the sixth and seventh centuries, scholars in Tiberias, Jerusalem, and Babylon created systems for writing the precise text, including vocalization and accentuation known as the mas'sora. These early efforts led to a standard text called the Masoretic text by the ninth century, with the oldest complete copy being the Leningrad Codex from around 1000 CE. The Samaritan community uses the Samaritan Pentateuch, which includes only the first five books and was rediscovered in the 17th century, with its oldest copies dating to around 1100 CE. The first codex form of the Hebrew Bible appeared in the seventh century, and the first printed version was published in 1488.
Old Testament
The Septuagint is a Greek translation of the Hebrew scriptures and related texts, created by around seventy or seventy-two Hellenic Jewish scribes and elders in Alexandria during the late third century BCE. It was likely commissioned by Ptolemy II Philadelphus, king of Egypt, to serve the needs of Greek-speaking Jews living in the Graeco-Roman diaspora. Work on the translation is believed to have been completed by 132 BCE. Fragments found among the Dead Sea Scrolls and papyri from Egypt dating to the second and first centuries BCE, as well as the first century CE, show that the text was already in use much earlier. The Septuagint underwent revision as early as the first century BCE, and complete copies from the third to fifth centuries CE have survived.
Variants
All biblical texts were copied with great care and reverence, but errors inevitably crept in, known as variants—any difference between manuscripts. Textual critic Daniel B. Wallace notes that each deviation counts as one variant, no matter how many manuscripts show it. Even the most precise medieval Hebrew manuscripts contain mistakes; Hebrew scholar Emanuel Tov emphasizes that the term is neutral, simply noting textual development paths that have diverged. Some variants are accidental, like spelling errors or shifts in word order, while others were intentional, made to improve grammar, harmonize passages, or reflect theological concerns. Old Testament scholar Bruce K. Waltke points out that the Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia lists one variant for every ten words, meaning 90% of the Hebrew text is unchanged. The United Bible Society’s Greek New Testament shows about 500 variants in 6900 words—roughly 7% of the text.
Themes
The Bible addresses life's biggest questions through stories, laws, and wisdom covering gender, family, work, money, and morality. Philosopher Jaco Gericke notes it implicitly deals with good and evil, right and wrong, and moral decision-making, though understanding its themes isn't always clear—much is narrative without direct teaching, leaving readers to figure out what's right or wrong on their own. Sometimes God appears in the story but often doesn't react, letting readers infer meaning. Jewish thinkers Shalom Carmy and David Shatz point out the Bible places opposing ideas side by side without explanation. Ethicist Michael V. Fox says Proverbs teaches that using your mind leads to good behavior, showing how actions and character shape moral reasoning. Humans have free will, but it's limited, and Christian thought sees love as the core of who we are. The Bible presents a view of justice rooted in divine authority, with even nations not knowing God being held accountable for their choices. Political theorist Michael Walzer finds early democratic ethics in covenant, law, and prophecy. The text grapples with how God allows evil to exist.
Hebrew Bible
The Hebrew Bible we rely on today comes from a text known as the Masoretic Text, with the Leningrad Codex dating from 1008 as the most authoritative version. This same collection is also called the Tanakh, a term derived from the first letters of its three parts: Torah, Nevi'im, and Ketuvim. Though the Tanakh was mostly written in Biblical Hebrew, some portions, like parts of Ezra and Daniel, appear in Biblical Aramaic. It’s not until the Babylonian Talmud, around 550 CE, that we find a clear listing of these three divisions of scripture.
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Overview
The books of the Bible didn’t come from a single author or even a single prophet, but instead reflect layers of work by many unnamed scribes, compilers, and revisers across generations. These texts evolved through oral performance and scribal workshops during the Second Temple era, then spread through manuscript copying networks. Archaeological findings like the Dead Sea Scrolls show how these writings changed over time, with textual variations across different collections offering a window into their complex history. The Bible as we know it today developed not through divine dictation, but through processes of compilation, revision, and transmission, shaped by diverse literary traditions and forms.
Divine authorship
The rabbis of the Babylonian Talmud teach that God wrote the Torah in heaven before creation using letters of black fire on parchment of white fire, and that Moses received it by divine dictation. Early Church Fathers agreed scriptures were inspired by God but disagreed on which writings were sacred, leading to differing views between Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches, which include Deuterocanonical books as inspired, and the Protestant tradition, which does not. In the 20th century, most theologians moved away from divine dictation, emphasizing human authors instead. Still, both Dei Filius, the First Vatican Council's Dogmatic Constitution on the Catholic Faith, and Dei verbum, the Second Vatican Council's Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation, affirm that scriptures "have God as their author," stating that while God chose men to write, they used their own abilities, acting in and through them to convey only what He intended.
Historical authorship
Modern scholarship shows that most Bible books didn't come from single authors like Moses or David, but emerged over centuries through many unknown scribes and editors who combined older sources, made additions or changes, and shaped texts for community use. The process moved from oral tradition and hand-written copies to printed versions, with today's English Bibles like the New International Version built on thousands of ancient manuscripts. Textual critics have found over 500,000 variations across these texts, including differences in word order, spelling, or entire verses. Examples include Mark's longer ending, the story of the woman caught in adultery in John, and disputed passages like the Comma Johanneum in 1 John. The Hebrew Bible also shows similar patterns, with readings from the Dead Sea Scrolls differing from the standard Masoretic Text, such as in Deuteronomy 32:8 or 1 Samuel 17–18.
Ancient scribal practices
During the Second Temple period, biblical texts transitioned from oral tradition to written form through professional scribes working on papyrus or parchment. Evidence from the Judean Desert reveals standardized scribal techniques like pricking and ruling, with Hebrew scrolls mostly on parchment and some on papyrus. These scrolls featured ketiv qere and early diacritic systems that later developed into the full Tiberian system between seventh and tenth centuries CE. Greek Christian manuscripts from second to fourth centuries CE used nomina sacra and quickly adopted codex format, signaling sacred status. Scribes copied from exemplars, checking work visually or by counting lines, marking corrections in margins or inline. Some colophons listed scribes, places, and dates, while Masorah later recorded variant readings and accents as part of textual quality system. Redaction and compilation combined sources, inserted headings, harmonized parallels, and created anthologies such as psalm and prophetic collections. Textual families from Qumran include proto-Masoretic, pre-Samaritan, and texts related to Septuagint's Hebrew hyparchetype.
Early textual traditions and the codex revolution
The Bible's transmission occurred through various textual traditions over many centuries. The Masoretic Text, with its Tiberian vocalization and notes, took shape around the 7th to 10th centuries CE. Earlier versions like the Greek Septuagint (3rd century BCE to 2nd century CE) show older textual states. The Aramaic Targums were used from the 1st to 8th centuries CE, while the Peshitta appeared in the 2nd to 5th centuries CE. The Latin Vulgate was made around 382 to 405 CE, and Coptic translations spanned the 3rd to 7th centuries CE. From the first through fourth centuries CE, the move from scrolls to codices changed text production and use. Christian communities preferred codices early on for scripture because they allowed multiple works to be bound together, reused, and cross-referenced easily. Major codices like Sinaiticus, Vaticanus, and Alexandrinus preserve large biblical collections from the 4th and 5th centuries CE. Eusebian canon tables, made around 320s CE, and later chapter systems helped organize the text, leading to today's familiar system of chapters and verses.
Printing revolution and critical editions
The printing revolution changed how texts were shared, moving away from hand-copied manuscripts to mass production and then to standardized versions. A key moment came with the Complutensian Polyglot Bible, which included the first printed Greek New Testament and the editio princeps of the Septuagint. That New Testament had a colophon dated January 10, 1514, though it wasn’t widely released until later, after papal approval and market conditions allowed. Erasmus published the first printed Greek New Testament in 1516, which quickly influenced both scholarly and vernacular translations. Then Robert Estienne added verse numbers to the New Testament in his 1551 Greek-Latin edition, a system that spread across languages and was later used in full Bibles.
Modern critical scholarship
Modern critical scholarship on the Bible depends on specific foundational texts: the Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia and Biblia Hebraica Quinta for the Hebrew scriptures, and the Novum Testamentum Graece (NA28) with the UBS Greek New Testament (UBS5) for the Greek. The accepted approach to understanding how the New Testament was transmitted, altered, and restored comes from guides like Kurt and Barbara Aland’s The Text of the New Testament. Scholars use these tools to trace variations in ancient copies and reconstruct the most reliable versions of biblical texts.
Dead Sea Scrolls, composition and combination evidence
At Qumran, twenty-two copies of Isaiah were found—twenty-one in caves, with one more at Wadi Murabba'at—showing how widely the book was used and copied in that area. The Great Isaiah Scroll preserves all sixty-six chapters across fifty-four columns and is split near chapter 33, but fragments from Cave 4 include parts of both early and late chapters, so it's not simply a first half versus second half. These findings, along with pesher commentaries, point to an active community that engaged deeply with the text. Evidence also shows that smaller prophetic books were combined into larger scrolls; for example, multiple Qumran manuscripts contain all twelve Minor Prophets in one scroll. A Greek scroll from Nahal Hever preserves the same book order, confirming this scribal practice of assembling smaller texts into larger literary wholes.
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Overview
The Hebrew Bible, or Tanakh, is the canonical Jewish scripture divided into Torah, Nevi'im, and Ketuvim. Different Jewish groups and Samaritans maintain varying versions including the Septuagint, Syriac Peshitta, Samaritan Pentateuch, and Dead Sea Scrolls. The Masoretic Text, compiled by Jewish scribes between 7th-10th centuries CE, is used in Rabbinic Judaism and contains 24 books in Biblical Hebrew with some Aramaic passages. This text differs from earlier versions like the Septuagint and Samaritan Pentateuch, which show variations. Scholars use these sources to study biblical development, though no single Urtext exists. The Protestant Old Testament matches the Hebrew Bible in content but not arrangement, while Catholic and Orthodox versions include additional books not recognized by Judaism or Protestantism. In Islam, the Tawrat includes all Hebrew Bible books, not just the Pentateuch. Modern scholars see the Hebrew Bible as a blend of history and folklore, with some events after 9th century BCE supported by archaeology but many traditional stories still debated.
Tanakh
The Hebrew Bible is organized into three main sections, an arrangement summarized by the acronym Tanakh, which comes from the first Hebrew letters of those parts: Torah, Nevi'im, and Ketuvim. This three-part structure appears in Rabbinic literature from the Masoretic period, though at the time the term Tanakh wasn’t used yet. Instead, the texts were known as Mikra or Miqra, meaning “that which is read,” since they were meant to be read aloud. The acronym Tanakh first shows up in the Masorah Magna, and later spread through the writings of Rabbi Shlomo ben Avraham ibn Aderet, whose responsa are collected in Teshuvot haRashba. Today, both Mikra and Tanakh refer to the Hebrew scriptures, and in Modern Hebrew, they’re used interchangeably.
Many scholars prefer the term Hebrew Bible over Old Testament or Tanakh because those other names carry religious connotations. The Society of Biblical Literature's Handbook of Style notes this and suggests authors be aware of the different terms without requiring any specific one. The word "Hebrew" points to the original language of the texts, but it can also refer to the Jewish people of the Second Temple period and their descendants, who maintained the transmission of the Masoretic Text up to today. The Hebrew Bible contains small sections written in Biblical Aramaic, especially in the books of Daniel and Ezra, using a square-script alphabet that was adopted after the Babylonian captivity.
Genres and themes
The Hebrew Bible, or Tanakh, contains many writing types, from storytelling to laws and poetry. The Torah, made up of Genesis through Deuteronomy, tells the story of the Israelites and the law given to Moses. Psalms are songs, but hymns also appear in books like Exodus, 1 Samuel, and Jonah. Proverbs and Ecclesiastes offer wisdom, while prophetic books include messages from prophets who spoke about God's plans or interpreted visions. Daniel is seen as apocalyptic literature, though some other parts of the Tanakh are also called proto-apocalyptic. A major theme is monotheism—the belief in one God—especially in contrast to the polytheistic cultures around them. The relationship between God and Israel is described through a covenant, where God promises the land and saves the people from their enemies. The Bible also sets ethical standards, opposing injustice and listing sins like murder and adultery. It presents a God who is both just and involved in human affairs.
Narrative
The Tanakh opens with creation and follows Israel's origins through patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (renamed Israel). God makes covenant with Abraham, marked by circumcision (brit milah), still observed today. Jacob's sons become Twelve Tribes; Joseph, sold into slavery by brothers, rises to power in Egypt where his family settles for 430 years. After Exodus, Israel wanders wilderness forty years before entering Promised Land of Canaan. For 470 years led by judges until Philistines threaten them. People ask for king; Samuel anoints Saul, seen as rejecting God's rule. David becomes king after Saul's death, uniting tribes and making Jerusalem capital. Son Solomon builds First Temple. After Solomon dies, united kingdom splits into Israel (north) and Judah (south). Israel falls to Assyrians around 722 BCE, while Judah survives until conquest by Babylon in 587-586 BCE. Temple destroyed, many exiled. In 539 BCE, Cyrus the Great allows exiles to return and rebuild Temple, beginning Second Temple period.
Traditional attribution
Religious tradition says Moses wrote the Torah, and later books like Daniel 9:11 and Ezra 3:2 call it the "Torah of Moses." But the Torah itself only says Moses wrote certain parts. He's thought to have lived in the second millennium BCE, though Hebrew writing hadn't developed yet—so the Torah likely came from the first millennium BCE, after Israel and Judah existed as states. Still, oral tradition probably shaped it, including stories from Genesis 12–50 and Exodus that may reflect how Israelite ancestors like Jacob and Moses used trickery to survive. King David, around 1000 BCE, is said to have written at least 73 Psalms, while his son Solomon is linked to Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Solomon. The Hebrew Bible paints their reigns as a golden age, but there's no archaeological proof for that—most likely, it's a later view of conditions under King Jeroboam II, who ruled from 781 to 742 BCE.
Before the exile
The ancient Israelites, according to scholars like Israel Finkelstein, largely originated from within Canaan, sharing close material culture with neighbors, and Hebrew was a Canaanite dialect. Archaeology shows Israel began as loosely organized tribal villages in the hill country around 1250–1000 BCE, forming temporary alliances during crises. The Book of Judges, written around 600 BCE, portrays this decentralized tribeship, with the Song of Deborah possibly reflecting older oral traditions. By the 9th or 8th centuries BCE, scribal culture in Samaria and Judah was advanced enough to produce biblical texts. The Kingdom of Samaria was more powerful than Judah and had multiple cultic sites like Bethel and Dan. The Jacob stories (Genesis 25–35) were likely written down in the 8th century BCE, probably in the north, at the sanctuary in Bethel, making them older than King Josiah's centralization efforts around 640–609 BCE. The Exodus story also seems to originate from the north and may have been connected to patriarchal tales during exile or post-exile times, showing similarities to the tale of Sargon of Akkad, suggesting Neo-Assyrian influence after 722 BCE, while using Assyrian patterns to convey an anti-imperial message. David M. Carr notes there might have been a small group of Canaanite origin who experienced slavery and liberation in Egypt, though most scholars believe such a group was only a minority. Some psalms may come from the northern shrine in Dan, including the Sons of Korah psalms, Psalm 29, and Psalm 68. Psalm 45 could also have northern origins, referencing a king marrying a foreign princess, a policy of the Omrides. The author of the Books of Kings likely lived in Jerusalem and clearly favors Judah, portraying Samaria as a godless breakaway region that refused to worship in Jerusalem.
Fixing the canon
The Hebrew Bible formed over centuries, with final shape in the postexilic period according to scholar John J. Collins. The Torah likely gained canonical status by 5th century BCE, as shown in Ezra 7:6. Nevi'im or Prophets were accepted by 2nd century BCE, with references in Sirach, Dead Sea Scrolls, and New Testament, though Daniel written around 164 BCE was excluded, suggesting collection was set. Ketuvim or Writings remained fluid until 2nd century CE, with no agreement on when canon fixed—some say Hasmonean dynasty, others second century CE or later. Debated Jamnia council likely never existed. Rabbis between 70-100 CE discussed which books made hands unclean, meaning holy and scriptural. Criteria included age, Hebrew language, and widespread use. Textual variants arose from centuries of copying, with scribes adding or changing details. Masoretic Text developed in Middle Ages brought vowel markings to ensure accuracy. According to Talmud, Tanakh compiled by Great Assembly around 450 BCE and unchanged since. 24-book canon noted in Midrash Koheleth 12:12.
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Overview
Biblical studies is the academic field that uses many different areas of knowledge to understand the Bible. It looks at the Hebrew Bible as used in Judaism and the Christian Bible, which includes both the Old and New Testaments. Scholars in this field use methods from ancient history, historical criticism, philology, theology, textual criticism, literary analysis, historical context, mythology, and comparative religion to study these texts. This approach helps researchers better understand the origins, meanings, and transmission of biblical writings across time.
Definition
Biblical studies examines the Bible as ancient texts, combining various disciplines. The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies describes it as a set of disciplines used to study these texts. These include historical criticism examining events and people mentioned in the Bible; archaeology studying physical remains of ancient life; hermeneutics focusing on text interpretation; textual criticism comparing different Bible versions to find the most accurate one; cultural anthropology looking at societies and cultures behind the texts; history covering time periods and events; the history of interpretation tracking how people have understood the Bible over time; sociology studying social aspects of biblical communities; theology exploring religious beliefs and ideas; and patristics studying writings of early Christian thinkers.
Academic societies
There are many academic groups dedicated to studying the Bible, with the Society of Biblical Literature being the largest, boasting around 8,500 members across more than 80 countries. The SBL publishes numerous books and journals, including its main publication, the Journal of Biblical Literature. Each year, it sponsors a major conference in North America and another one internationally, along with smaller regional gatherings. Other organizations involved in this field include the European Association of Biblical Studies, the Canadian Society of Biblical Studies, the Evangelical Theological Society, the Institute for Biblical Research, the American Schools of Oriental Research, and the Catholic Biblical Association.
Biblical criticism
Biblical criticism is the scholarly study of biblical texts that seeks to understand them as ordinary literature rather than as sacred writings. It examines when and where texts were written, who produced them, and under what circumstances, while also exploring their sources and intended message. This approach applies to the Hebrew Bible, the Old Testament, New Testament letters, and the canonical gospels, and it helps in understanding the historical Jesus. It draws from disciplines like archaeology, anthropology, and comparative religion. The Old Testament includes diverse styles such as historical narratives, proverbs, psalms, and prophecy, while the New Testament mainly features gospels and letters. Textual criticism involves external analysis—like dating and identifying the type of text—and internal analysis, which looks at content, style, and theology.
Biblical exegesis
Biblical exegesis is the practice of interpreting scripture, particularly the Bible, and it often relies on understanding the historical and literary context of the texts. When studying the Gospels, especially, scholars must consider whether Jesus was a real person, and whether he was truly the Son of God—this distinction affects how readers approach the text, deciding if the Gospels should be taken literally or symbolically. The Book of Revelation stands apart from other biblical books and requires special attention to determine if it should be read literally or as symbolic imagery. The intentions of its author, John, also shape how people understand the text. Finally, one’s view of whether scripture is divinely inspired or simply a historical document has a major impact on interpretation.
Textual criticism
Textual criticism is the study of how texts change as they're copied by hand, especially ancient manuscripts. Since scribes made mistakes or changes while copying, scholars try to figure out what the original text probably said. They work with many copies of a document, not the original itself, and aim to rebuild the earliest version, called the urtext or autograph. This process can also help reconstruct earlier versions or recensions in a text’s history. The goal is to produce a critical edition that comes as close as possible to the original. There are three main methods: eclecticism, stemmatics, and copy-text editing. Some modern scholars even use techniques from biology, like cladistics, to map how manuscripts are related. Textual criticism is sometimes called “lower criticism,” in contrast to “higher criticism,” which looks at who wrote the text, when, and where.
Biblical history
Historical research plays a major role in how scholars study the Bible today, trying to understand each text by examining its historical context and rebuilding the world where it was written. Common methods include historical criticism, which analyzes authorship, dating, and textual development. The documentary hypothesis suggests the Pentateuch originated from four sources. Debate continues over Jesus's historical figure, as Gospels differ in their accounts. Disagreement exists about whether Old Testament passages should be seen as history or myth—while figures like King David and Solomon are widely accepted as real, events such as creation story or Noah's flood raise questions. The terms "myth" and "history" carry different meanings for many people, adding confusion to text analysis. The New Testament's original Greek language and transmission through oral tradition before writing makes it especially difficult to determine what Jesus actually said or did.
Original languages
The Hebrew Bible, which forms the Christian Old Testament with some rearrangements and book splits, was primarily written in Biblical Hebrew, with a few chapters in Biblical Aramaic. Some deuterocanonical books found in certain Bibles are written in Hebrew, Greek, or Aramaic. The New Testament was written in Koine Greek, the same language as the first major translation of the Hebrew Bible, called the Septuagint or Greek Old Testament. Because very few original Hebrew manuscripts exist, scholars compare these limited texts with ancient translations like the Septuagint to assess reliability. To verify authenticity, researchers look for unique keywords not directly translated from the original languages, noting how changes appear across versions. The Bible was first translated into Old Greek in the 3rd century BC, and later the New Testament was rendered in Koine Greek, also known as Biblical Greek.
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Overview
The Christian Bible, originally written in Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek, has been translated into numerous languages over time. As of September 2026, according to Wycliffe Bible Translators, the full Protestant Bible is available in 807 languages, with the New Testament rendered into 1,844 additional tongues, and portions of the Bible translated into 1,519 more. That brings the total to at least 4,170 languages out of 7,394 known ones. In the New Testament, differences among manuscripts include mistakes, missing words, extra content, altered phrasing, and varying interpretations. Sometimes these variations have been shaped by or used to support different religious beliefs.
Hebrew Bible
The Hebrew Bible was primarily written in Biblical Hebrew, though certain sections, including parts of Daniel and Ezra, appear in Biblical Aramaic. Some Deuterocanonical books, like 2 Maccabees, originated in Koine Greek. During the third and second centuries B.C.E., these scriptures were rendered into Koine Greek in a version known as the Septuagint, a form frequently used by the authors of the Gospels. From the sixth through tenth centuries A.D., Jewish scholars called Masoretes undertook the task of standardizing the text by comparing various manuscript versions, resulting in what are now known as Masoretic Texts. These scribes also introduced vowel points, or niqqud, because the original text contained only consonants, which sometimes necessitated interpretive decisions. Ancient variant readings persist in the Samaritan Pentateuch and other early fragments, as well as in translations from that time into other languages.
New Testament
The New Testament was originally written in Koine Greek, though reports suggest it began in Aramaic, with some parts in Latin. The autographs—manuscripts written by the authors themselves—no longer exist, so scholars piece together the original text from surviving copies. Most differences between manuscripts are small, like spelling or word order, but occasionally major variants appear, such as in the endings of Mark, the Pericope Adulteræ, and the Comma Johanneum. Early New Testament writings had no punctuation, which was added later by editors. Four main textual traditions have been identified: Alexandrian, Byzantine, Western, and possibly the now-lost Caesarean. The discovery of older manuscripts like Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus led Karl Lachmann to revise his 1831 critical edition, challenging the Textus Receptus. There is also a tradition, attributed to Papias of Hierapolis around 125, that the Gospel of Matthew was originally written in Hebrew. Eusebius reported that Pantaenus found Hebrew Gospel manuscripts in India around 200, and Jerome noted that Matthew may have been composed “in Hebrew letters in Judea,” though these claims remain debated.
Aramaic Targums
During the Babylonian exile, Aramaic grew into the common language for Jews, replacing Hebrew as the everyday tongue. Because most people no longer understood Hebrew, the Targums were developed to help ordinary listeners follow along with Torah readings in ancient synagogues. These translations made the sacred text accessible to those who could not read or understand the original Hebrew. The Targums served as a bridge between the written Torah and the spoken word, allowing the common person to grasp its meaning as it was read aloud.
Greek Septuagint
In the third century BC, Alexandria became the center of Hellenistic Judaism, where translators produced a Koine Greek version of the Hebrew scriptures between the third and second centuries BC, finishing by 132 BC. According to the Talmud, Ptolemy II Philadelphus hired 72 Jewish scholars for the task, which is why the translation is commonly called the Septuagint, from the Latin septuaginta, meaning "seventy." This first Greek version of the Hebrew Bible became the accepted Old Testament text in the Christian church and shaped its canon. Jerome's Latin Vulgate used the Hebrew text for books found in the Jewish canon but relied on the Greek for deuterocanonical works. The Septuagint was widely used by Greek-speaking Jews and Christians and varies somewhat from the later Masoretic Text. It contains books and passages not included in that Hebrew standard, some originally written in Greek and others translated from Hebrew sources. A legend recorded in the Letter of Aristeas claims that seventy or seventy-two translators worked separately but produced identical texts, supposedly proving its accuracy. Though no complete Hebrew manuscripts used for the Septuagint survive, many scholars believe they reflect a different textual tradition than that behind the Masoretic Text.
Late Antiquity
The books of the Christian New Testament were written in Koine Greek, and many scholars believe the Gospels gathered oral traditions passed down from the apostles rather than being direct dictations. The Old Testament proto-canonical books existed in two main forms: Hebrew texts and the Greek Septuagint translation. Since Jerome, most Christian translations of the Old Testament—except the Psalms—have been based on Hebrew texts, although some denominations still prefer the Greek or use readings from both. Modern Bible translations that apply textual criticism typically start with the Masoretic Text but also consider variants found in ancient versions.
2nd century
In the second century, the Old Testament was translated into Syriac, and the Gospels were combined into a single harmony called the Diatessaron. Around 235, Origen created the Hexapla, a monumental work that lined up six versions of the Old Testament side by side: the Hebrew consonantal text, the Hebrew text in Greek letters known as the Secunda, the translations by Aquila of Sinope and Symmachus the Ebionite, one recension of the Septuagint, and the translation of Theodotion. He also included three anonymous Psalms translations called the Quinta, Sexta, and Septima. This eclectic version of the Septuagint had a major impact on later manuscripts. By the fifth century, the New Testament was translated into Syriac, known as the Peshitta. In the second and third centuries, the New Testament was also rendered into various Coptic dialects, with the Old Testament already translated by that time.
4th century
In 331, Emperor Constantine asked Eusebius to make fifty Bibles for the new Church of Constantinople. Around 340, scribes in Alexandria were preparing Bibles for Constans. These early efforts may have inspired creation of canon lists, and some scholars believe Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209, Codex Sinaiticus, and Codex Alexandrinus came from this time. The Bible was also translated into Gothic by a group possibly led by Ulfilas in the fourth century. At the Synod of Laodicea in 363, Canon 59 said non-canonical books should not be read in church. Canon 60, which is debated, matched Bishop Cyril of Jerusalem's list from 350, though both left out the Book of Revelation. Athanasius included it in his 367 Festal Letter. All three lists did include the deuterocanonical books of Baruch and Lamentations. Jerome's Latin Vulgate translation was done between 382 and 405, based on earlier Latin versions called Vetus Latina, but he often returned to the original Hebrew or Greek instead. The Peshitta, a Syriac translation, is among the most important ancient Bible translations.
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Overview
The ESV Study Bible, often called the ESVSB, is a study Bible put out by the publisher Crossway. It uses the text of the English Standard Version, and its study notes come from a perspective of "classic evangelical orthodoxy, in the historic stream of the Reformation." That means the content reflects traditional Protestant beliefs rooted in the ideas that came from the Reformation era. The ESVSB offers readers a way to understand the Bible through this specific theological lens. It’s not just a translation, but a guide shaped by that particular view of Christian teaching.
Commercial performance
The ESV Study Bible came out in October 2008, backed by a $1 million fundraising effort. The initial print run was 100,000 copies, and it sold out before it was finished. In just six months, 300,000 had been printed. Eventually, the ESV Study Bible went on to sell over 1 million copies.
Critical response
In the Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society, Andy Naselli offered high praise for the ESV Study Bible. He noted that many evangelical pastors and teachers support it, but its exceptional quality is what makes it stand out. No other study Bible compares to the ESVSB in either content or excellence. According to Naselli, it’s hard to imagine a more thorough resource that serves believers at every stage—whether they are new to faith, growing in their understanding, or well-established in their walk with Christ.
Awards
In 2009, the ESV Study Bible was named Christian Book of the Year by the Evangelical Christian Publishers Association. That recognition was especially notable because it marked the first time in the award’s 30-year history that a study Bible had won. The same year, World magazine also honored the ESV Study Bible, naming it Book of the Year.
Chinese Study Bible
The Chinese Study Bible, known as the CSB, was adapted from the ESV Study Bible and uses the Chinese Union Version with New Punctuation for its text. It sold more than 6,500 copies on its first day. In 2012, Fu Xianwei of the Three-Self Patriotic Movement visited Crossway and, after seeing the ESV Study Bible, expressed interest in a Chinese edition. The CSB was published in 2017 by the British and Foreign Bible Society and Crossway, with Simon Wong leading a team of local reviewers that included seminary lecturers and experienced pastors. Wong served as chief editor. A hardback version came out in 2022. In 2022, Wong stated, "If we had started the Study Bible project two years later, I don’t know if it would ever be finished ... The situation in mainland China has progressively tightened, especially in the past two to three years."
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Overview
Mockingjay is the final novel in The Hunger Games series, written by Suzanne Collins and published in 2010. It follows Katniss Everdeen as she leads a rebellion against the oppressive Capitol of Panem. The book came out six days after its ebook version, with hardcover and audiobook editions released by Scholastic on August 24. In its first week, it sold 450,000 copies, surpassing expectations. Critics praised the novel, and it was adapted into a two-part movie, with the first part premiering in 2014 and the second in 2015.
Inspiration and development
The Hunger Games trilogy's final book, Mockingjay, was shaped by classical and historical parallels, with Suzanne Collins drawing inspiration from the myth of Theseus and the Minotaur, where Athens sent youths to be killed by a monster in a labyrinth. She also saw connections between the fictional nation of Panem and the Roman Empire, describing the Hunger Games as an updated version of Roman gladiator games, with the name "Panem" coming from the Latin phrase "Panem et Circenses," meaning "Bread and Circuses." Collins, who had used a three-act structure in her earlier series The Underland Chronicles, structured Mockingjay with 27 chapters divided into three parts of nine each. The novel’s title refers to hybrid birds symbolizing hope and rebellion, and Collins compares Katniss to a Mockingjay because both "should never have existed."
Plot
After Catching Fire, Katniss joins District 13, the rebellion’s hidden base, where her mother, sister Primrose, mentor Haymitch Abernathy, and friend Gale Hawthorne have resettled along with other Hunger Games victors like Finnick Odair and Beetee Latier. She reluctantly becomes "Mockingjay," the rebellion’s symbol, only after President Alma Coin promises immunity for all surviving tributes, including Peeta Mellark and Annie Cresta, who’ve been captured. Struggling with propaganda work, Katniss is sent to District 8 to film, but during an air raid, she leaves the studio to fight, delivering a powerful televised speech. The Capitol tortures Peeta, showing him on screen in decline, yet he still warns the rebels of an attack. A rescue mission retrieves him, along with Annie and Johanna Mason, but Peeta, now brainwashed through a method called "hijacking," tries to kill Katniss. While others work to heal him, Katniss distances herself and throws herself into the war effort. She and Gale are sent to District 2, where she questions the rebels’ methods, and later, while filming combat in the Capitol, is shot live. As the rebellion closes in, Katniss leads a squad that includes Finnick—killed by genetically modified reptiles—and storms the presidential mansion. A hovercraft drops bombs disguised as aid into children used as shields; Primrose dies, and Katniss is severely burned. Recovering, she learns the rebels sacked the Capitol on the day of the bombing and that Coin now leads Panem. Coin offers her a chance to execute President Snow, but Katniss suspects a trap. She breaks away, infiltrates the Capitol, and kills Snow instead—only to be arrested after shooting Coin. After the war, Commander Paylor becomes President, and Katniss is acquitted and returns home with Haymitch and Peeta. Her mother and Gale stay in other districts helping rebuild. Peeta slowly regains his memories and eventually develops a real relationship with Katniss. Twenty years later, they marry and have two children. Under Paylor’s rule, the Hunger Games are abolished, replaced by memorials. Katniss finds peace, but fears her children will learn of their parents’ war involvement. She comforts her daughter with a game—reminding herself of every good thing she's ever seen someone do.
Themes
The Hunger Games trilogy's themes continue into Mockingjay, with reviewers noting how the series explores physical hardship, loyalty under extreme pressure, and moral ambiguity on a larger scale. Katniss faces betrayal and violence while leading people into war, discovering she cannot trust President Coin, leader of District 13. Suzanne Collins said the series deals with issues like poverty, starvation, oppression, and war's effects—inspired by her father's experience in Vietnam. The Baltimore Sun observed that these themes are taken further in Mockingjay, while The Christian Science Monitor called it the most brutal of the trilogy, emphasizing that Collins does not treat war lightly. The New York Times described it as a perfect teenage story filled with rage against adult cruelty. USA Today's Bob Minzesheimer pointed out that hope emerges from despair, even in a dystopian world, and that the novel raises the question "Real or not real?" throughout, especially through Peeta's repeated doubts. Susan Carpenter of the Los Angeles Times also highlighted how unclear sides and shifting loyalties define the story's confusing landscape.
Sales
The Book That Was Copied. Chapter: Mockingjay. Section: Sales. Scholastic's first print run for the book was 1.2 million copies, bumped up from an original estimate of 750,000. It sold over 450,000 in its first week, leading the publisher to add 400,000 more, bringing the total to 1.6 million. Ellie Berger, president of Scholastic Trade, said sales "have exceeded all expectations." The book also became available as an e-book and topped weekly sales in the week ending August 29, 2010, beating The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo, which had been number one since April. The other Hunger Games titles made it into the top ten, with the first at fifth and the second at eighth. By March 2012, the book had sold over 9 million copies.
Promotion
To promote Mockingjay's release, bookstores nationwide held midnight parties, with Collins attending the official New York event featuring a tarot reader, magician, jugglers, and face-painters. Prizes included signed Catching Fire copies and Hunger Games-themed cups. Collins read the first chapter using an Appalachian accent for Katniss, explaining her hand injury led to signature stamps on sold copies. Scholastic launched a trailer, a Facebook page gaining 22,000 fans in ten days, and a contest for booksellers to win Collins visits. Advertisements appeared in Entertainment Weekly and Romantic Times, while the National Entertainment Collectibles Association sold T-shirts, posters, games, and bracelets. Collins hosted a "13-District Blog Tour" where 13 winners received free copies on August 24, 2010, with a tour starting at Books of Wonder in New York and ending November 6, 2010, at Third Place Books in Lake Forest Park, Washington.
Critical reception
Publishers Weekly called Mockingjay "the best yet," praising its "sharp social commentary and the nifty world building." Nicole Sperling of Entertainment Weekly said Collins has "kicked the brutal violence up a notch in an edge-of-your-seat plot." Kirkus Reviews gave it a starred review, declaring it exactly what fans are looking for and that it "will grab them and not let go." Susan Carpenter of the Los Angeles Times called it "every bit as original as the first in the series," ending with "Wow." The Baltimore Sun's Nancy Knight noted that although the book ends on an ostensibly happy note, the effects of war aren't sugar-coated. Katie Roiphe of The New York Times said it's "the perfect teenage story" but found it lacking in plot compared to The Hunger Games. Bob Minzesheimer of USA Today gave it three out of four stars, and Yvonne Zipp of The Christian Science Monitor called it "an entirely gripping read." Some reviewers did point out a drop in suspense between Catching Fire and Mockingjay, with The Sacramento Bee praising the action scenes but criticizing the way Collins handled the conclusion.
Film adaptation
The final two movies in the Hunger Games series were directed by Francis Lawrence, who had previously helmed Catching Fire. The last book, Mockingjay, was adapted into two films. Part One opened on November 21, 2014, and Part Two followed exactly one year later, on November 20, 2015. Julianne Moore portrayed President Coin in the final installments. The actress who played the main character in the 2012 Hunger Games film stayed on for all four movies.
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