The Fasting Instinct
Why Nearly Every Religion Gives Something Up
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- Comparative Religion
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The book covers Christianity's Lenten practices, Jainism's strict dietary rules, Sufi mystics' fasting traditions, and the legal frameworks that govern religious abstinence. It explores how food prohibitions function within communities and how rituals shape individual behavior.
Whether you're studying comparative religion or simply curious about why people give up things for spiritual reasons, this book offers clear explanations of fasting practices across traditions. You'll learn how religious law shapes dietary restrictions and how different cultures approach the relationship between food and faith.
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Overview
Christianity is a monotheistic religion rooted in the Bible and teachings of Jesus, whom Christians believe is the Son of God who died and rose from the dead. The Gospels—Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John—tell the story of his life and ministry, drawing on both Old and New Testaments. It began in the 1st century as a sect within Judaism, spreading through the Eastern Mediterranean despite persecution. By the 2nd century, it had separated from Judaism, especially after Gentiles were included. In 313, Emperor Constantine decriminalized Christianity with the Edict of Milan, and in 325, the Council of Nicaea established key beliefs in what became the state religion by 380. Over time, divisions occurred—like the East–West Schism in 1054—and later, the Reformation gave rise to Protestantism. Today, Christianity is the world's largest religion with over 2.3 billion followers, including Catholics, Protestants, and Orthodox Christians, and it continues to grow in Africa and Asia.
Etymology
Early Jewish Christians called themselves "The Way," a phrase from Isaiah 40:3 about preparing the path of the Lord. The term "Christian," meaning "follower of Christ," first appeared in Antioch, given by non-Jewish people there. Ignatius of Antioch used the word "Christianism" around 100 AD, the earliest recorded use of that term. The name Jesus comes from the Greek Iēsous, likely derived from the Hebrew or Aramaic Yēšūaʿ.
Apostolic Age
Christianity began in the 1st century AD as a Jewish movement in Judaea, rooted in late Second Temple Judaism. The first followers of Jesus were Jews who saw him through familiar messianic and apocalyptic ideas, staying close to Jewish life and not yet thinking of themselves as separate from Israel. They formed a community in Jerusalem led by James the Just, Peter, and John, waiting for Jesus’s return and eschatological renewal. As the message spread beyond Judea into the Greco-Roman world, it attracted Gentile followers, especially "God-fearers." Paul, once a persecutor of the movement, became a key figure after his conversion, arguing that Gentiles could join the promises of Israel through faith in Christ and baptism, without fully following the Torah. This shift helped shape Christianity as its own religion, distinct from Judaism.
Ante-Nicene period
In the early centuries of Christianity, around 150 AD, teachers began writing works to defend the faith, and these authors are known as the Church Fathers, including Ignatius of Antioch, Polycarp, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria, and Origen. During this time, there was no single Christian movement but many competing groups, with some calling themselves "schools of thought" or heresies. Figures like Justin Martyr and Irenaeus argued for one original teaching, while others like Valentinus promoted Gnostic beliefs and Marcion created an early Christian scriptural canon. Christianity was often seen as disruptive in the Roman world, and by 249 AD, Emperor Decius required all citizens to sacrifice to Roman gods, except Jews. Persecutions intensified under Diocletian beginning in 303, but later Constantine supported Christianity, though heretical views were still suppressed.
Spread in the Roman Empire
Christianity expanded from the Mediterranean coast into the Roman Empire and further into Mesopotamia, which at times fell under Parthian and later Sasanian control. By the middle of the first century, it had reached Egypt, and by the end of the second century, the region around Carthage. According to tradition, Mark the Evangelist founded the Church of Alexandria around forty-three AD. Important early African theologians included Tertullian, Origen, and Augustine. Armenia became the first state to make Christianity its official religion under King Tiridates III in the early fourth century. In Rome, Constantine I, who was exposed to Christianity as a young man, ended persecution after 311 and again with a decree in 313. At that time, Christians made up only about five percent of the population. After being linked to the state, Christianity grew wealthy, drawing donations from the rich and gaining land ownership. Theodosius I, Gratian, and Valentinian II declared Nicene Christianity the empire's official faith in 380. Constantine also called the First Council of Nicaea in 325, which addressed Arianism and formulated the Nicene Creed still used today. Constantinople emerged as the leading Christian city in culture and wealth during the Byzantine period. Later, Islam's spread across North Africa diminished Christian communities, leaving mainly the Coptic Church in Egypt, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, and Nubian churches in Sudan.
Early Middle Ages
As the Western Roman Empire fell, the papacy grew into a political force, with Pope Leo negotiating with groups like the Huns and Vandals. The church expanded through missionary work among Germanic, Celtic, Baltic, and Slavic tribes, even as Arianist leaders persecuted pagans. By around 500, Christianity was deeply rooted in Byzantine and Italian culture, and Benedict of Nursia introduced his Monastic Rule, shaping monastic life across Europe. Monasteries became centers of learning, especially in Ireland, Scotland, and Gaul, laying groundwork for the Carolingian Renaissance. In the 7th century, Muslim conquests swept through Syria, North Africa, and Spain, converting some Christians and placing others under a separate legal status. The Byzantine Empire was weakened by its long war with Persia. Beginning in the 8th century, the Papacy sought support from the Frankish Kingdom as Carolingian leaders rose to power. Pope Gregory the Great reformed church administration, and in the early 8th century, iconoclasm caused division under Byzantine emperors. The Second Ecumenical Council of Nicaea in 787 ruled in favor of icons. In the early 10th century, Cluny Abbey revitalized Western monasticism.
High and Late Middle Ages
From the 11th century onward, cathedral schools evolved into universities like Oxford, Paris, and Bologna, expanding education beyond monastic walls to include clerics, lawyers, and physicians. Mendicant orders such as the Franciscans and Dominicans brought religious life into cities, while the Cistercians focused on rural areas. Church building reached new heights with Romanesque and Gothic styles, culminating in great cathedrals. Christian nationalism grew, leading to the First Crusade in 1095 under Pope Urban II, launched in response to Byzantine pleas against Turkish expansion. The Crusades ultimately failed and even led to the sacking of Constantinople. Meanwhile, internal conflict between Latin and Eastern Christianity resulted in a lasting schism, with efforts like the Councils of Lyon (1274) and Florence (1439) failing to reunite the churches. In the 13th century, growing emphasis on Jesus' suffering increased hostility toward Jews, contributing to their expulsion from England in 1290. Beginning around 1184, institutions known as the Inquisition were formed to combat heresy and enforce doctrinal unity.
Reformation and response
In 1517, Martin Luther posted his Ninety-five Theses against indulgences, and printed copies spread quickly across Europe. The Edict of Worms in 1521 excommunicated Luther and his followers, leading to a split in Western Christendom. Reformers like Zwingli, Calvin, Knox, and Arminius further challenged Catholic teachings, giving rise to Protestantism, which rejected papal authority, tradition, and the seven sacraments. England's Reformation began in 1534 when King Henry VIII declared himself head of the Church of England, and monasteries were dissolved starting in 1536. Meanwhile, Thomas Müntzer and Andreas Karlstadt pushed for a more radical break, sparking the Radical Reformation and Anabaptist groups. In response, the Catholic Church launched the Counter-Reformation, with the Council of Trent clarifying doctrine. The discovery of America in 1492 sparked global missionary efforts, spreading Christianity widely. Religious divisions fueled violence and wars like the Thirty Years' War and French Wars of Religion, shaping debates on tolerance and persecution. Renaissance humanists, while not rejecting Christianity, used it as a focus for art and learning, with many great works commissioned by the Church. Some of history's most influential scientists, including Galileo and Newton, identified as Christian.
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Overview
Jainism is an Indian religion known also as Jain Dharma, teaching a path to spiritual purity through strict nonviolence, or ahimsa, toward all living beings. The tradition follows 24 tirthankaras, spiritual teachers who have achieved omniscience and liberation from rebirth. Central to Jain ethics are three principles: ahiṃsā, anekāntavāda, which holds that truth has many aspects, and aparigraha, or non-attachment. The 23rd tirthankara, Pārśvanātha, is dated to the 8th or 7th century BCE, and the 24th, Mahavira, lived in the 6th or 5th century BCE, around the same time as the Buddha. Jain communities, divided into Digambaras and Śvētāmbaras, have historically avoided agriculture and warfare, instead thriving in trade and commerce. They are known for their literacy, intellectual contributions, and charitable works, with festivals like Paryushana and Diwali marking their spiritual life.
Etymology
Jainism comes from the Sanskrit word ji, meaning "to conquer," and refers to the struggle against desire and passion, with the goal of achieving omniscience. Those who reach this level are called jina, or "conquerors." The followers of this path are known as jain or jaina, which means "follower of the conquerors." This term replaced an older name, nirgrantha, which was used only for ascetic wanderers and meant "bondless."
Ratnatraya (the three jewels)
In Jainism, the path to liberation involves three core principles known as the ratnatraya, or the three jewels: samyak darśana, right vision or faith in the teachings; samyak gyana, right knowledge of self and non-self; and samyak charitra, correct conduct following the five vows. These are sometimes expanded to include a fourth jewel, samyak tapas, which emphasizes ascetic practices as essential to moksha, or liberation. Together, these four jewels form what is called the Moksha Marga, the path of liberation. The tradition also rests on three fundamental tenets: ahiṃsā, nonviolence; aparigraha, asceticism; and anekāntavāda, the understanding that truth has multiple perspectives and that reality cannot be reduced to simple views.
Ahimsa – non-violence
In Jainism, the principle of ahimsa, or non-violence, is the highest religious duty, demanding that one abandon all violent action, speech, and thought. According to texts like the Ācārāṅga Sūtra and Tattvarthasūtra, killing or causing harm to any living being—no matter how small or large—is forbidden. Jains believe that violence harms the soul and creates bad karma, affecting rebirth and spiritual progress. While this doctrine appears in Hinduism and Buddhism, it is most fully developed in Jainism, where it’s seen as a form of self-discipline leading to salvation. Some late medieval scholars, like Jinadattasuri, argued that force could be justified in defense, such as monks protecting nuns, though such cases are rare.
Aparigraha – non-attachment
In Jainism, the third core principle is called aparigraha, which means non-attachment to worldly things. For monks and nuns, this vow includes complete non-possession of property, relationships, or emotions. In the Digambara tradition, these ascetics are wandering mendicants, while in the Śvētāmbara tradition, they live as resident mendicants. For Jain laypeople, the teaching recommends owning only what is needed from honestly earned resources, and donating any excess to charity. According to Natubhai Shah, aparigraha covers both material and psychic possessions—meaning not just physical items but also emotions, likes, dislikes, and all forms of attachment. The belief is that unchecked attachment harms one’s inner self.
Metaphysics and cosmology
In Jainism, the nature of the universe and the soul are deeply connected through metaphysics. The soul, called jiva, is seen as an eternal entity that exists apart from the body and the physical world. These two realms interact in ways that determine the cycle of rebirth known as Saṃsāra. This interaction between the soul and matter shapes how beings move through life and death, according to Jain beliefs about existence and the cosmos.
Soul and karma
In Jainism, the soul is affected by karmic particles—subtle, material matter drawn to it by thoughts, words, and actions. These particles, called pudgala, stick to the soul like dirt, hiding its natural qualities of consciousness and bliss. This karmic bondage traps the soul in cycles of birth and death, known as Saṃsāra. Liberation comes through ratnatraya, the path of the three jewels: samyak darśana, correct faith; samyak gyana, correct knowledge; and samyak charitra, right conduct aligned with the five vows.
Saṃsāra (cycle of rebirth)
In Jainism, Saṃsāra is the endless cycle through which souls are born, die, and are reborn, driven by their karma. This cycle is seen as the natural order of existence, yet it is also full of suffering. The goal is to break free from this cycle and achieve liberation, called Moksha. According to Jain belief, there are four main states a soul can take in rebirth: as a heavenly being, a human, an animal or plant, or a being in hell. There are also 8.4 million possible forms of existence a soul might inhabit. Some souls, however, are said to be abhavya—eternally stuck in Saṃsāra with no chance of ever gaining freedom.
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Overview
Sufism is a mystical tradition within Islam focused on spiritual purification and ascetic practice, emerging in the early Islamic period under figures like Hasan al-Basri as a response to the luxury of the Umayyad Caliphate. Practitioners, known as Sufis, seek to return to their natural state of purity, called fitra, through self-discipline and guidance from spiritual leaders called murshids. They follow paths known as tariqa, aiming for ihsan, or spiritual excellence, often through collective worship or individual dhikr, the remembrance of God. Some Sufi guides have claimed extraordinary authority, even asserting divine powers or links to the Mahdi, though most remain within Sunni Islam. Sufism incorporates elements from pre-Islamic traditions like Neoplatonism and Indian asceticism, blending them with Islamic teachings, and has influenced both Islamic spirituality and Western thought, despite facing criticism and decline in modern times.
Terminology and efforts on definition
The term “Sufi” originally meant “one who wears wool,” linking the word ṣūfī to asceticism and detachment from worldly life, a meaning supported by Al-Qushayri and Ibn Khaldun. Some medieval scholars like Al-Biruni suggested it came from the Greek σοφός, meaning wisdom or knowledge. The term entered European languages in the 18th century through Orientalist scholars who saw Sufism as an intellectual tradition separate from orthodox Islam, though historian Nile Green argues that in the medieval period, Sufism and Islam were largely the same. Islamic explanations trace the root to ṣafā, meaning “purity,” and connect it to tasawwuf, or “self-purification.” Others link it to the Ahl al-Ṣuffa, the poor companions of Muhammad who gathered for dhikr. Classical Sufi texts defined tasawwuf as a path toward ethical and spiritual goals, using various terms depending on context.
Journey to the truth / Teachings and doctrines
In Sufism, the path to God is not just for the afterlife but can be experienced here on earth, through a four-stage journey: Sharia, Tariqa, and Marifa, leading to Fana-fillah and Baqa-billah, where dualities dissolve. One key teaching is the concept of al-Insān al-Kāmil, or the Perfect Human, embodied by the qutb, a spiritual axis on earth who channels divine grace. This belief creates tension with Shia Islam, as both the qutb and the imam claim authority over spiritual guidance. Sufis often serve their teacher for years—like Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari, who served his first master for 20 years, then others for many more. He also dedicated time to helping the poor and caring for animals, as instructed by his mentors.
Inner Senses (Lata'if)s
In Sufism, the concept of subtle centres—known as Lataif-e-sitta or the six subtle faculties—guides the path to spiritual awakening. These centres are believed to be purified step by step, leading to a complete journey of the soul. The tradition draws on three core elements: the lower self, called nafs; the spiritual heart, known as qalb; and the soul, referred to as ruh. According to Ja'far al-Sadiq, these interact to shape different spiritual states—ranging from the tyrant ruled by nafs, to the person of faith guided by qalb, to one lost in divine love, dominated by ruh. Methods for activating these centres include Tawajjuh, or intentional attention passed from teacher to student; Dhikr, which involves recitation and movement; and Muraqabah, a sustained awareness focused on the body part linked to each centre.
Theological perspectives; God and attaining to Him
In Sufi thought, God is seen not as a distant Creator but as Absolute Being or Absolute Truth, with all of creation reflecting that divine reality. This differs from mainstream Islamic theology, which emphasizes rational proof of a transcendent God. Sufism offers a path to union with the divine through beauty and reflection, promising closeness to God in this life rather than waiting for the afterlife. Two main approaches exist: one begins with purifying the self to recognize all of creation as God’s work, as taught by Imam Al-Ghazali; the other starts with divine attraction, entering the path with a direct glimpse of the Divine Presence, as practiced by the Naqshbandi and Shadhili orders. A third approach, linked to Said Nursi’s Risale-i Nur, focuses on following the way of Muhammad directly, without needing a spiritual master.
Muhammad
In Sufism, devotion to Muhammad is central, with Sufis viewing him as the greatest spiritual figure. The poet Saadi Shirazi said following the prophet’s path leads to truth, while Rumi credited his self-control to Muhammad’s guidance. Ibn Arabi called Muhammad the most perfect human, the Seal of the Prophets, and believed his essence was the first creation. He saw Muhammad as the embodiment of divine attributes, through whom God can be known. Fariduddin Attar praised him as the sun of creation, the guide for all humanity. The 13th-century poet Al-Busiri wrote Qaṣīdat Al-Burda, a widely recited poem in his honor. For Ibn Arabi, Islam is the best religion because of Muhammad, who serves as both model and proof of God’s existence.
Sainthood
In Islamic tradition, a walī means "friend of God," someone marked by divine favor and holiness, chosen for exceptional gifts like working miracles. The idea of saints developed early in Muslim history, with scholars pointing to Quranic verses and hadith as proof of their existence. Among the first revered figures were early Sufi mystics such as Hasan of Basra, who died in 728, Farqad Sabakhi in 729, Dawud Tai around 777–81, Rabi'a al-'Adawiyya in 801, Ma'ruf al-Karkhi in 815, and Junayd of Baghdad in 910. By the twelfth to fourteenth centuries, the veneration of saints had become formalized through Sufi orders or brotherhoods, where spiritual perfection was expressed through teachings passed down to disciples.
Miracles
In Islamic mysticism, saints known as awliyāʾ, or "friends of God," are believed to perform supernatural acts called karamat. These wonders, which include physical marvels, predictions of the future, and insight into people's hearts, are seen as gifts from God. The term karama itself means generosity or high-mindedness, and it’s closely linked to the idea of a divine charism. Belief in these miracles has long been considered a requirement within Sunni Islam, where the spiritual power of saints is recognized through such extraordinary deeds.
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Overview
Religious law covers the ethical and moral rules taught by different faith traditions. These laws come from religious sources and can take many forms. Christian canon law is one example, used within the church’s broader teachings, though today it's separate from regular government law. Jewish halakha guides Jewish life, while Islamic sharia governs Muslim communities. Hindu law also serves as a legal framework for followers of that tradition. In some places, these religious laws only apply to people of the same faith. In other areas, civil courts may enforce them for everyone living there.
Established religions and religious institutions
In some countries, a state religion is officially supported by the government, and in these places, religious law can shape the legal system. A theocracy is a form of government where a deity is recognized as the highest ruler. In both types of systems, conscientious objectors may face religious offense. By contrast, secular states or multicultural societies don’t officially endorse any one religion, though they might either suppress all religious activity or promote tolerance for different beliefs.
Christianity
In Christianity, religious law comes in several forms. There is the Mosaic Law, found in the Old Testament and also known as divine or biblical law—most notably represented by the Ten Commandments. Then there are the teachings of Jesus himself, called the Law of Christ or the New Commandment, which contrast with the older covenant. The Apostolic Decree from Acts 15 is another kind of law still followed by the Greek Orthodox Church. Catholic, Anglican, and Orthodox churches use canon law. Some Christian groups distinguish between law and grace, seeing salvation as either earned through obeying laws or received through faith in Jesus’s sacrifice. As John writes in his gospel: “From his fullness we have all received grace upon grace.”
Biblical/Mosaic law
Christian views of the Old Covenant differ, and must be separated from Christian theology, ethics, and practice. The term "Old Covenant," also called the Mosaic covenant and the Law of Moses, refers to the religious law and ethics found in the first five books of the Old Testament. These views appear in the New Testament, including Jesus' antitheses of the law, the circumcision controversy in Early Christianity, and the Incident at Antioch involving Paul the Apostle and Judaism. Most Christians believe only parts of the Old Covenant apply today, while some Protestants think none do. Dual-covenant theologians say only the Noahide Laws apply to Gentiles. The Jewish Christianity movement is nearly gone. According to the New Testament, Christians are no longer seen as Gentiles, as Romans 8:28–29 suggests.
Canon law
Canon law is the set of rules and regulations created by religious authorities to govern Christian organizations and their members. It applies to the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern and Oriental Orthodox Churches, and the Anglican Communion, though how these laws are made, understood, and enforced differs among them. Originally, a canon was a rule established by a church council, coming from the Greek word kanon, which itself derives from the Hebrew kaneh, meaning rule, standard, or measure. These early canons became the foundation for what we now know as canon law.
Canons of the Apostles
The Canons of the Apostles, also known as the Ecclesiastical Canons of the Same Holy Apostles, is a set of early church rules compiled from eighty-five decrees in the Eastern Church and fifty in the Western. These guidelines were part of a larger collection called the Apostolic Constitutions, which is found within the Ante-Nicene Fathers—early Christian writings that predate the Council of Nicaea. This document outlines how the early Christian community was governed and disciplined, offering insight into the structure and practices of the first centuries of Christianity.
Catholic Church
The Catholic Church’s canon law, known as jus canonicum, is the oldest continuously operating legal system in the West, older even than European common and civil law. It began with rules from the Council of Jerusalem in the first century and grew to include influences from Hebrew, Roman, Visigothic, Saxon, and Celtic traditions. Over time, it was collected into official bodies like the Decretum Gratiani, the Liber Extra, and the 1917 Code of Canon Law, later revised in 1983 under Pope John Paul II. The Eastern Catholic Churches also have their own code, promulgated in 1990. This legal system governs everything from doctrine to daily practice and continues to shape modern civil law across Europe and Latin America.
Orthodox Churches
The Greek-speaking Orthodox have gathered their rules and interpretations into a guide called the Pēdálion, which means "Rudder" and is meant to steer the Church. Though these canons are seen more as flexible guidelines than strict laws, bishops adapt them to local conditions. Some scholars note that if the Ecumenical Councils intended for these rules to be binding laws, they would have used the word nómoi/νόμοι instead of kanónes/κανόνες, yet most Orthodox still follow them. Still, the official decisions made at the Councils must be obeyed because they are necessary for the Church’s unity.
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Overview
People across cultures and religions give up certain foods or drinks through strict rules or taboos. These prohibitions ban specific animals—mammals, reptiles, fish, insects, or animal parts—and sometimes plants or fungi. Some rules relate to health concerns or practical needs, while others stem from symbolic or spiritual beliefs. Food restrictions apply only on certain days, during religious times like Lent, or at life stages such as pregnancy. They can also be limited to specific groups, like priests. What's forbidden for one group may be fine for another, even within the same culture. These taboos protect individuals physically or spiritually while creating group identity and belonging. In some cases, they reflect ecological or medical concerns, and when applied to only part of a community, they can lead to unequal food access.
Causes
Religions across the world have long prescribed rules about what people can and cannot eat. Judaism follows kashrut, which forbids mixing meat and dairy, while Islam divides foods into halal and haram. Jains often practice vegetarianism, and some Hindus, especially from upper castes, see vegetarianism as ideal. Early medieval Christianity had penances for eating uncooked foods, and Saint Boniface once asked Pope Zachary how long bacon needed to be cured to be safe. The kapu system in Hawaii restricted certain foods until 1819. Cultural taboos also shape eating habits—dog meat is eaten in parts of Asia but taboo in the West, and horse meat is rare in English-speaking countries despite being common elsewhere. Laws reflect these beliefs too: India bans cattle abattoirs, the U.S. restricts horse slaughter, and Hong Kong still prohibits dog and cat meat. Modern movements like environmentalism and veganism are creating new food prohibitions, such as avoiding endangered species or products from exploitative labor conditions.
Amphibians
In Judaism, eating amphibians like frogs is forbidden, as described in Leviticus 11:29-30 and 42–43, and this includes avoiding derivative products from such animals. While frog legs are considered a delicacy in some cultures and even farmed commercially, overconsumption has raised environmental concerns. In France, for instance, the Ministry of Agriculture began protecting native frog species as early as 1976, and by 1980, mass commercial harvesting was banned. Still, importing frogs or hunting them privately remains legal in many areas.
Birds
The Torah forbids eating eagles, vultures, and ospreys in Leviticus 11:13, while Leviticus 11:16 bans ostriches. Rabbis interpret these restrictions as distinguishing birds of prey and scavengers from permitted birds like chickens and turkeys. Islamic law allows ostrich but forbids birds of prey defined by claws and talons. Scavengers like vultures and crows are avoided due to disease concerns and death associations, though rooks were once eaten in England. Western cultures today see songbirds as wildlife rather than food. For Muslims, balut—a developing duck or chicken embryo boiled in its shell—is forbidden because it's considered "maytah," or unslaughtered meat. The ortolan bunting, once a gourmet delicacy in France, was captured, force-fed, drowned in Armagnac, and eaten whole, sometimes with a napkin over the diner's head to hide from God.
Camels
The Torah, in Deuteronomy 14:7 and Leviticus 11:4, forbids the eating of camels. Though camels chew the cud like kosher animals such as bovines, sheep, goats, deer, antelope, and giraffes, they are considered unclean because they lack cloven hooves. Camels are ruminants with multi-chambered stomachs, and while they are even-toed ungulates with feet split in two, their feet form soft pads instead of hard hooves. In contrast, Islam permits and even traditionally encourages the eating of camel meat, particularly in regions like Saudi Arabia and the Arabian Peninsula.
Cattle
In India, cattle hold a sacred place in Hinduism, with some Hindus, especially Brahmins, strictly avoiding meat and particularly abstaining from beef. The cow is revered as a divine being, even manifesting as the goddess Kamadhenu, a wish-granting cow. While dairy products like milk, yogurt, and ghee are widely consumed, cow slaughter is banned in most Indian states, except Kerala, West Bengal, and seven northeastern states, with violators facing jail time. In contrast, some Chinese Buddhists discourage beef but do not consider it taboo, while Sinhalese Buddhists view it as ungrateful, given cows' role in providing milk and labor. Burmese Buddhists also avoid beef, seeing cows as working partners, though this taboo is less strict in cities like Mandalay and Yangon. On the Indonesian island of Java, even Muslim communities in Kudus avoid beef to respect Hindu sensibilities.
Chewing gum
In Singapore, a ban on selling chewing gum has been in place since 1992. It's not illegal to chew gum there, but importing and selling it is restricted, with a few exceptions. Since 2004, those exceptions have included therapeutic, dental, and nicotine chewing gum, which can be purchased from a doctor or registered pharmacist.
Chickens
A Jewish traveler named Ibrahim ibn Yaqub visited Slavic lands during the 10th century and observed the eating practices of the people who would later become Poles. He noted that these Slavs avoided chicken, believing it led to weakness and a red rash. This belief has persisted among some followers of Slavic paganism even into modern times.
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Overview
The Abrahamic religions include Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, which honor Abraham as a key figure, along with smaller traditions like the Baháʼí Faith, the Druze faith, Rastafari, and Samaritanism. Some scholars also consider Yazidism, Mandaeism, Yarsanism, and Shabakism to be part of this group, though that’s debated. These religions share certain beliefs, histories, and regions, setting them apart from Indian, Iranian, and East Asian faiths. While Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are the largest, with Christianity and Islam each followed by about half the world’s people, the term "Abrahamic" was coined in the 20th century to better include Islam and recognize differences between Judaism and Christianity. Some scholars have criticized the term for smoothing over important distinctions between these traditions.
Usage
The term Abrahamic religions refers to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, along with smaller faiths like the Baháʼí Faith, the Druze faith, Rastafari, and Samaritanism. It’s used in interfaith discussions, civil dialogue, and academic settings, and first appeared in the second half of the 20th century. Originally, the term was limited to just those three main religions, but that definition has come under criticism. The Baháʼí Faith, which emerged in the late-19th century, is seen by some as Abrahamic because it traces its origins back to Abraham.
Theological discourse
The figure of Abraham is seen as a shared foundation among Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and other faiths like Samaritanism, the Druze Faith, the Baha'i Faith, and Rastafari, with some scholars suggesting a future spiritual unity between them. The term "Abrahamic religion" reflects the idea that these traditions stem from one spiritual source, a concept rooted in a Quranic reference to dīn Ibrāhīm, or "religion of Abraham." In Christianity, Paul the Apostle, in Romans 4:11–12, calls Abraham "father of all," including both circumcised and uncircumcised believers. Islam also identified itself early on as the "religion of Abraham," and the Bahá’í scriptures state that Baháʼu'lláh, the faith’s founder, traced his lineage to Abraham through his wife Keturah's sons.
Criticism
The idea of grouping Judaism, Christianity, and Islam as "Abrahamic religions" has been questioned by scholars. Adam Dodds says the term, while useful, can be misleading because it suggests a deep shared history that doesn't fully hold up under scrutiny. Alan L. Berger, a professor of Judaic studies, wrote in 2012 that although Judaism gave birth to both Christianity and Islam, the three traditions diverged significantly and each views Abraham differently. Aaron W. Hughes calls the term "imprecise" and notes that before the 20th century, "Abrahamic" was used mainly in Christian supersessionism or in Islamic contexts, not to unite religions. Massignon's early use of the term had similar theological aims, trying to bridge Jewish and Muslim audiences. Crucially, core beliefs differ: Christianity's doctrines of the Trinity and Jesus's resurrection are rejected by Judaism and Islam, while Jewish and Islamic dietary laws conflict with Christian practices. Also, Islam, Christianity, and the Baháʼí Faith hold beliefs about Jesus that Judaism does not.
Judaism
Jewish tradition traces the Twelve Tribes of Israel back to Abraham, through his son Isaac and grandson Jacob, whose sons became the founders of the Israelite nation in Canaan. In its early form, the Israelite religion known as Yahwism shared features with the Bronze Age Canaanite religions, but by the Iron Age it had developed into something distinct, moving away from polytheism toward monolatry. The people understood their relationship with their god, Yahweh, as a covenant, with the deity promising Abraham a permanent homeland. During the Babylonian captivity, Jewish theologians reinterpreted the creation story, attributing the six-day account solely to Yahweh, showing an early view of him as a universal god. After the fall of Babylon, Judaism absorbed new beliefs like messianism, free will, judgment after death, and concepts of heaven and hell.
Christianity
Christianity began in the 1st century AD, rooted in Judaism and centered on Jesus of Nazareth, whom followers came to see as God incarnate after his crucifixion and resurrection. The apostles spread the faith, and Paul reinterpreted Abraham's role, seeing him as a man of faith prior to religious law, contrasting with Jewish views that linked Abraham to adherence to law. After the siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE, both Judaism and Christianity had to redefine their beliefs, leading to competing theologies claiming Abrahamic heritage. Christians honored Jesus while still referencing Hebrew scriptures, drawing parallels between Jesus and biblical stories starting with Abraham. Over time, Christianity split into many denominations—first under the Roman Empire's adoption of it as state church in 380, then through the East-West Schism in 1054, and again during the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century. Though diverse, it shaped Western civilization deeply.
Islam
Islam began in the 7th century AD with the teachings of the Quran, believed by Muslims to be God's direct revelation. The religion traces its roots to Abraham, through his son Ishmael, and views Muhammad as the final prophet, the Seal of the Prophets. While Islam shares monotheistic beliefs with Judaism and Christianity, it sees itself as the continuation of the original message preached by all prophets, including Jesus and Moses. The Quran refers to earlier sacred texts like the Tawrat (Torah), the Zabur (Psalms), and the Injil (Gospel), which were revealed to figures such as David and Jesus. It also mentions scrolls revealed to Abraham and Moses. Unlike the New Testament, which builds on the Hebrew Bible, the Quran uses biblical stories to support its message of one God, or tawhid, without relying on earlier Christian or Jewish interpretations.
Modern era
In the modern era, some religious traditions that are sometimes grouped with Abrahamic faiths include the Baháʼí Faith, which was established in the 19th century and emerged in an Islamic context, sharing beliefs like monotheism and recognizing Jewish, Christian, and Islamic figures as prophets. Scholars also point to Bábism, a 19th-century movement that came before the Baháʼí Faith. Another tradition, Rastafari, arose in 1930s Jamaica, blending Christianity with Afrocentric beliefs, and is sometimes considered Abrahamic due to its monotheism and use of the Bible as scripture.
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Overview
A ritual is a repeated, structured sequence of actions that changes someone or something, whether inside or out, without needing conscious understanding or emotional context. These acts can be traditional, like religious ceremonies, or found in non-human species such as elephants mourning or corvids leaving objects. Rituals appear in every known human society and include everything from worship rites to weddings and funerals, even simple greetings like handshakes. The term has been defined in different ways; Kyriakidis describes it as an "etic" category—how outsiders see a set of actions that might seem irrational. Yet people also use the word themselves, recognizing that others may view their behavior this way. In psychology, ritual can refer to repetitive behaviors used to reduce anxiety, sometimes linked to obsessive-compulsive disorder, though these are usually isolated activities.
Etymology
The English word ritual comes from the Latin ritualis, meaning "that which pertains to rite," and in Roman religious and legal contexts, ritus referred to the established way of doing something—what we might call "correct performance" or "custom." This concept may be connected to the Sanskrit word ṛtá, found in Vedic religion, which means "visible order" and describes the lawful structure of cosmic and human events. The English word ritual first appeared in 1570, and by the 1600s it was used to describe the prescribed order of religious services, often found in specific books of instructions.
Characteristics
Rituals can include almost any kind of action, and they’ve been part of societies past and present. They often involve special gestures, words, or texts, music, dance, processions, and the use of particular objects or clothing. People also fast, eat, drink, or take substances as part of ritual practice. Catherine Bell describes rituals as being marked by formalism, traditionalism, invariance, rule-governance, sacral symbolism, and performance.
Formalism
Ritual relies on a fixed and structured way of speaking known to anthropologists as a "restricted code," which contrasts with the more flexible "elaborated code." According to Maurice Bloch, this formal speech pattern restricts intonation, sentence structure, word choice, volume, and order. When leaders adopt this style, their words become more about presentation than meaning. Because such speech limits what can be expressed, it encourages "acceptance, compliance, or at least forbearance with regard to any overt challenge." Bloch suggests this kind of communication leaves no room for resistance; rebellion becomes nearly impossible, and only revolution remains as a real option. Ritual, in this way, helps preserve existing power structures and keeps the foundations of authority intact from question.
Traditionalism
Rituals are tied to tradition and often repeat historical practices, religious ceremonies, or cultural mores. Traditionalism is different from formalism because a ritual doesn’t have to be formal to still connect to the past. For example, American Thanksgiving dinner isn’t highly formal, but it’s based on an early Puritan event. Historians Eric Hobsbawm and Terrence Ranger argue that many traditions are invented, like the rituals of the British monarchy, which claim "thousand-year-old" roots but actually began in the late nineteenth century. These modern versions revive earlier forms—like medieval ones that had been forgotten—that were reimagined for contemporary purposes. So the appeal to history matters more than strict historical accuracy.
Invariance
Catherine Bell explains that ritual operates on a principle of invariance, meaning it relies on consistent, carefully planned actions rather than spontaneity. This repetition isn’t about clinging to old ways, but about creating timeless patterns. The core of this approach lies in bodily discipline—like the structured practices found in monastic prayer and meditation, which shape how we feel and behave. These disciplined acts are often done together, in groups, reinforcing shared experience and collective rhythm.
Rule-governance
Rituals are often built around rules, a kind of formal structure that brings order to how people act. These rules set boundaries or even map out specific behaviors, shaping what's allowed and what’s not. By following these shared customs, individuals align themselves with a larger group identity, submitting to a kind of collective authority that influences outcomes. This pattern isn’t limited to everyday life—historically, war itself was shaped by ritualized limits that defined how conflicts could be fought.
Sacral symbolism
Rituals often involve activities that seem to appeal to something beyond the ordinary, even when that appeal is indirect, reflecting a general belief in the sacred and a need for human response. Take national flags, for example—they're more than just cloth or symbols of a country. They stand for ideas like freedom, democracy, or national pride. Anthropologist Sherry Ortner notes that the flag doesn't ask people to think deeply about how these concepts connect or play out in history. Instead, it calls for complete loyalty, as summed up by the phrase: "Our flag, love it or leave." Objects become sacred not just through what they are, but through how they're treated—through a process of consecration that sets them apart from everyday life. This is why the Boy Scouts and military teach specific ways of folding, saluting, and raising flags, reinforcing that they're not just fabric, but symbols worth honoring.
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Overview
Religious syncretism happens when different religious traditions come together, forming a new system or blending into an existing one. This often occurs when cultures live near each other or when one group conquers another, bringing their own beliefs without fully replacing the old ones. Such mixing sometimes connects religious and political power. Many religions contain syncretic elements, though those tied to exclusivist traditions—like Abrahamic faiths—often resist the label, seeing it as contamination. In contrast, non-exclusivist systems are more open to absorbing other practices into their own.
Ancient history
In ancient Athens, religion was strictly controlled, with some sources claiming a decree by Diopeithes made it illegal to introduce or believe in foreign gods, restricting worship to Greeks alone. Outside of Greece, however, syncretism was common; the Hellenistic period following Alexander the Great saw cultures blending, mixing Mesopotamian, Persian, Egyptian, and Roman elements into a shared Hellenic framework. The Egyptian god Amun became Zeus Ammon after Alexander visited the oracle at Siwa Oasis. Romans adopted Greek gods like Apollo and Hercules early on, often identifying them with their own deities without copying rituals. They imported figures such as Serapis, Isis, and Mithras, and adapted Anatolian cults like Cybele into Roman worship, even physically bringing her statue from Pessinos to Rome. The Romans also merged foreign gods with their own, creating hybrids like Sulis Minerva and Mars Thingsus, showing how syncretism shaped religious life across the empire.
Early Christianity
In the early centuries after Jesus's death, Christianity faced competing beliefs including Gnosticism, which saw material things as evil and spiritual ones as good—opposing the mainstream view that all creation was good because God made it. One early Gnostic teacher was Simon Magus. The Roman emperors used syncretism to help hold their vast empire together, and as Christianity spread across Europe, missionaries adapted local traditions into the new faith. Pagan gods were sometimes reimagined as Christian saints; for example, Demetrius of Thessaloniki took on roles once held by Demeter after her worship faded in the fourth century. Early Church thinkers like Justin Martyr said that truth found in other cultures belonged to Christians too, and figures such as Augustine and Thomas Aquinas brought ideas from Plato and Aristotle into Christian thought, as John Henry Newman later explained about how doctrine developed.
Early Judaism
In Moses and Monotheism, Sigmund Freud suggested that Judaism developed from the brief monotheistic reform in Egypt under Akhenaten. Some scholars point to the Code of Hammurabi as an influence on the Ten Commandments. Others believe that early Judaism adopted ideas about the afterlife, angels, and demons through contact with Zoroastrianism, though this is debated. Even with strict religious laws against idolatry, hybrid traditions formed over time—like Messianic Judaism, Jewish Buddhism, Nazarenism, and Semitic neopaganism. Certain figures such as Jacob Frank and the Sabbateans merged Kabbalistic Judaism with Christianity and Islam.
Zoroastrianism and Islam
The Danish orientalist Arthur Christensen noted that Zoroastrian texts from the Sasanian Empire era don’t match later sources like the Pahlavi texts, suggesting clerics adapted their faith after the empire’s fall to survive under Islamic rule. Gherardo Gnoli observed that the Islamic conquest of Persia led Zoroastrians to shift toward monotheism, especially the Parsis in India, who largely abandoned dualism. Maneckji Nusserwanji Dhalla described how Zoroastrians tried to reconcile their beliefs by diminishing Ahriman’s role, even claiming Ahura Mazda allowed evil or that Iblis was a rebellious angel. One 15th-century Persian text even said the Magi believed Allah and Iblis were brothers. Zoroastrians also merged their figures with Islamic ones, identifying Zoroaster with Abraham and Jamshid with Solomon.
Islam and West Asian religions
Sufism, the Islamic mystical tradition, seems syncretic at first, but many scholars argue otherwise. mainstream Sufism has always been part of Sunni Islam, with well-known orders like Naqshbandi, Qadiri, and Shadhili remaining integrated within normative Islamic life. In Bengal, during the Sufi presence, Muslim–Tantric syncretism was common, as shown in Nobibongšo by Syed Sultan, which traces the line of Islamic prophets including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus, but also mentions Dharmic figures like Brahma, Vishnu, Rama, and Krishna. In Morocco, the Barghawata kingdom practiced a syncretic faith mixing Sunni, Shi'ite, and Kharijite Islam with astrological and pre-Islamic traditions; their leader Salih ibn Tarif claimed to be a prophet and the final Mahdi, even asserting that Jesus would pray behind him. The Druze religion developed by blending Ismailism with Gnosticism, Platonism, and Christianity, honoring saints like Saint George and Elijah for their bravery. Satpanth represents another example, combining Ismaili Islam and Hinduism.
South and East Asian religions
Buddhism has blended with local traditions across East and South Asia, creating unique religious fusions. In China, most people follow syncretic practices combining Mahayana Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism, with about 85% identifying as adherents of Chinese traditional religion. The Three Teachings harmonize Buddhism with Confucian philosophy and Taoism, while Shinbutsu-shūgō merges Shinto and Buddhist elements. Nichiren Buddhism was proposed to blend with Shinto by priest Jimon Ogasawara. In India, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Zoroastrianism adapted over time, such as in the Yoga Vasistha text from the 14th century. The Akram Vignan Movement, founded by Dada Bhagwan, merged Jain and Vaishnavi Hindu traditions. Mughal emperor Akbar created Din-i-Ilahi in 1582 to unify religious communities, and the Allopanishad emerged during his reign. Satpanth, from the 14th century, blends Ismaili Islam with Hinduism. Meivazhi, a 19th-century religion from Tamil Nadu, teaches oneness across major faiths including Islam, Judaism, Christianity, Hinduism, and Buddhism. Tibetan Buddhism incorporates earlier Bön practices, and Southeast Asian variants of Buddhism include local folk beliefs like veneration of nats in Myanmar and phi in Thailand. In China, many follow syncretic religions combining folk religion and Christianity or Islamic theology. The Lepcha people of the Himalayas practice both traditional Mun faith and Buddhism, with Christian traditions also incorporated.
Christianity
Christianity, as it spread, adapted to local cultures through practices like contextualization or inculturation, which changed how it was expressed rather than its core beliefs. Missionaries brought European styles of music and architecture, but in some cases, they adjusted these to fit local traditions. For example, some Jesuit missionaries in China adopted local systems and images to teach the faith, a method that was later opposed by the Dominicans, leading to what became known as the Chinese rites controversy.
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