The Lewis and Clark Expedition
The Corps of Discovery and the Route to the Pacific
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The book covers their motivations behind Jefferson's orders, the detailed preparations before departure, and the challenges of navigating unfamiliar landscapes. It explores encounters with various Native American groups, including the role of Sacagawea as guide and interpreter. Chapters examine scientific observations, geographical discoveries, and Spanish interference along the route. The expedition's accomplishments include creating detailed maps, documenting wildlife, and establishing American claims to the Pacific Northwest.
Anyone interested in American exploration, westward expansion, or the early history of the United States will find this account essential reading.
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Thomas Jefferson wanted to find the most direct route across the continent for trade, and he saw the Missouri River as key to that goal. He also hoped to assert American control over the land where many Native American tribes lived. At the same time, he wanted to learn what resources were available in the Louisiana Purchase, which had just been completed. The expedition did contribute to science, but that wasn't its main purpose.
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For years, Thomas Jefferson had read about western frontier explorers and kept a deep interest in learning more about uncharted land. In the 1780s, while serving as Minister to France, he met John Ledyard in Paris and discussed a possible journey to the Pacific Northwest. He also read Captain James Cook's A Voyage to the Pacific Ocean and Le Page du Pratz's The History of Louisiana, both of which shaped his plans. Like Cook, Jefferson wanted to find a way through the Northwest to the Pacific coast. Alexander Mackenzie had already mapped a route, traveling the Mackenzie River to the Arctic Ocean in 1789 and reaching the Pacific in 1793—twelve years before Lewis and Clark. Mackenzie's accounts in Voyages from Montreal showed Jefferson that Britain was trying to control the Columbia River fur trade, so he acted quickly. In Philadelphia, Israel Whelen bought supplies for the expedition at Lewis's request, including 193 pounds of portable soup, 130 rolls of pigtail tobacco, and 30 gallons of strong spirit of wine. Two years into his presidency, Jefferson asked Congress for funding, using a secret message due to tension with the Federalist Party. Congress approved $2,324 for supplies, which Lewis was put in charge of.
In 1803, President Jefferson chose Captain Meriwether Lewis to lead a new expedition, and Lewis asked William Clark to join him as co-leader. Jefferson had already begun preparing Lewis for the long journey ahead, as the project was gaining approval and funding. He explained his choice this way: “It was impossible to find a character who to a complete science in botany, natural history, mineralogy & astronomy, joined the firmness of constitution & character, prudence, habits adapted to the woods & a familiarity with the Indian manners and character, requisite for this undertaking. All the latter qualifications Capt. Lewis has.”
In 1803, Jefferson sent Lewis to Philadelphia to study under Benjamin Rush, a physician and former Revolutionary War leader, and arranged for him to be taught by Andrew Ellicott, an astronomer who instructed him in using a sextant and other navigation tools. Lewis also learned from Benjamin Smith Barton how to collect and preserve plant and animal specimens, while Robert Patterson helped with calculating latitude and longitude. Caspar Wistar taught him about fossils and the search for living remains. Jefferson, who had a vast library on North American geography at Monticello, let Lewis consult maps and books and talk with him regularly. The keelboat built near Pittsburgh that summer was finished on August 31, loaded with supplies. Lewis bought a Newfoundland dog named Seaman to join the journey; Seaman, a good swimmer and protector, was the only animal to complete the entire trip.
Lewis and his crew began their journey that afternoon, heading down the Ohio River toward Louisville, Kentucky, where they were to meet Clark in October 1803, at the Falls of the Ohio. Their mission was to explore the massive land area gained through the Louisiana Purchase and to build trade relationships and assert U.S. control over Native American groups along the Missouri River. Jefferson also wanted to secure a claim of discovery in the Pacific Northwest and Oregon Territory by documenting an American presence there before European powers could lay claim to it. His main goal was to find a water route to the Pacific coast for commerce, as his instructions made clear: “The object of your mission is to explore the Missouri River, & such principle stream of it, as, by its course and communication with the waters of the Pacific ocean, whether the Columbia, Oregon, Colorado or any other river may offer the most direct & practicable water communication across this continent for the purpose of commerce.”
The expedition carried advanced weaponry, and the United States mint had crafted special silver medals featuring Jefferson’s likeness. These were inscribed with a message promoting friendship and peace, known as Indian Peace Medals. The soldiers were instructed to give these medals to the Native American tribes they encountered.
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The Corps of Discovery left Camp Dubois, also known as Camp Wood, on the afternoon of May 14, 1804. Led by Clark, they journeyed up the Missouri River in a keelboat and two pirogues until they reached St. Charles, Missouri. There, Lewis joined the group six days later. The expedition continued the next day, on May 21. Historians believe the group included as many as forty-five people total—officers, military members, civilian volunteers, and York, an African-American man who was enslaved by Clark.
From St. Charles, the Corps of Discovery traveled along the Missouri River, passing through what is now Kansas City, Missouri, and Omaha, Nebraska. On August 20, 1804, Sergeant Charles Floyd died unexpectedly from appendicitis. He was the only member of the group to die during the journey. His remains were laid to rest by the riverbank, a site now known as Floyd's Bluff in Sioux City, Iowa. A cedar post marked his grave, inscribed with his name and the day he passed. The expedition made camp about a mile upstream at a small tributary they called Floyd's River. In the final week of August, Lewis and Clark arrived at the edge of the Great Plains, where wildlife such as elk, deer, bison, pronghorn, and beavers were abundant.
The Lewis and Clark Expedition, known as the Corps of Discovery, traveled through uncharted territory in search of a route to the Pacific Ocean. Along the way, they built relationships with around two dozen Native American nations. These connections were essential for their survival, especially during the long, harsh winters when food was scarce and the mountain passes dangerous. Without the help of these groups, the expedition would have likely starved or become lost in the vast and unforgiving Rocky Mountains.
The Americans and the Lakota nation had problems when they met, and there was a concern the two sides might clash. According to Harry W. Fritz, "All earlier Missouri River travelers had warned of this powerful and aggressive tribe, determined to block free trade on the river." The Sioux were also expecting a retaliatory raid from the Omaha tribe, to the south. A recent Sioux raid had killed 75 Omaha men, burned 40 lodges, and taken four dozen prisoners. The expedition held talks with the Lakota near the confluence of the Missouri and Bad rivers in what is now Fort Pierre, South Dakota.
The expedition encountered trouble when one of their horses went missing, and they suspected the Sioux were behind it. When the groups met, tensions rose, and the Sioux demanded either that the men remain or offer more gifts—what Clark called “tribute”—before allowing passage through their land. He described the Sioux as “warlike” and the “vilest miscreants of the savage race.” The situation nearly turned violent several times, but a Lakota chief named Black Buffalo convinced Lewis to give more tobacco to the gathered warriors. Lewis agreed, and the group was then permitted to move upstream toward the Arikara villages.
The winter of 1804–1805 found the Corps of Discovery at Fort Mandan, close to where Washburn, North Dakota, stands today. Before setting out again on April 7, 1805, they sent the keelboat back toward St. Louis with a collection of plants and animals unknown to science east of the Mississippi River. A chief requested that Lewis and Clark give him a boat so he could journey through his own land. The Americans then continued west along the river, eventually making camp for the winter in the territory of the Mandan people.
After establishing their camp, the expedition was visited by many nearby tribal members, some of whom stayed overnight. Lewis and Clark held council with Mandan chiefs over several days, where they met Toussaint Charbonneau, a French-Canadian fur trapper, and his young Shoshone wife, Sacagawea. Charbonneau began acting as the expedition’s translator. The groups reached peace through the sharing of a ceremonial pipe. By April 25, Captain Lewis had completed a progress report describing the tribes they'd encountered, their locations, trading habits, and water routes. President Jefferson later presented this report to Congress.
They pressed west along the Missouri to its headwaters, crossed the Continental Divide at Lemhi Pass, and made their way north to Traveler’s Rest before pushing through the Bitteroots at Lolo Pass. After descending on foot, they took up canoes and floated down the Clearwater, Snake, and Columbia rivers, passing Celilo Falls and continuing toward present-day Portland where the Willamette and Columbia meet. Once they reached the lower Columbia, Lewis and Clark relied on William Robert Broughton’s 1792 notes and maps to guide them. The sight of Mount Hood and other stratovolcanos signaled that the Pacific Ocean was close at hand.
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The Corps of Discovery saw the Pacific Ocean on November 7, 1805, and reached it two weeks later. That winter, they spent a harsh second season camped on the north side of the Columbia River in a place Clark named Dismal Nitch. Food was scarce, especially since elk— their main food source— had moved into the mountains, and the group could no longer afford to buy supplies from local tribes. On November 24, 1805, most members voted to relocate camp to the south side of the river near what is now Astoria, Oregon. Both Sacagawea and York, who was enslaved, took part in that vote.
On the south side of the Columbia River, about two miles upstream on the west side of the Netul River—which is now called the Lewis and Clark River—they built Fort Clatsop. The fort served not only as shelter and protection but also to officially mark American presence in the area, with the American flag flying overhead. While wintered there, Lewis dedicated himself to writing, filling many pages of his journals with detailed observations, mostly about botany, due to the rich forests and plant life surrounding them. The men's health began to decline as well, with many falling ill to colds and influenza.
Lewis and Clark asked the Chinooks about trading ships they had seen in the lower Columbia River. They learned Captain Samuel Hill had been there in early 1805, though Clark mistakenly wrote his name as “Haley.” Hill returned in November 1805, anchoring about ten miles from Fort Clatsop. The Chinook told him about the expedition, but no direct contact was made.
While Lewis and Clark were still at the mouth of the Columbia River, a Russian maritime expedition led by statesman Nikolai Rezanov arrived there too. Rezanov came from Novo-Arkhangelsk, which is now known as Sitka, Alaska. His goal was to start an agricultural colony in Russian America to help solve ongoing food shortages. He planned to move the capital of Russian America from Sitka to the lower Columbia River. But his ship, the Juno, couldn't get past the Columbia Bar. So instead, Rezanov went to California, where his actions eventually led to the founding of Fort Ross.
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Lewis wanted to stay at the fort until April 1, but he was eager to leave as soon as possible. By March 22, the bad weather had cleared, and the next day, March 23, 1806, the Corps of Discovery began its return journey. They started by paddling upstream on the Columbia River in canoes, then switched to traveling over land.
Before they set out on their return journey, Clark entrusted a letter to the Chinook people, asking them to deliver it to whichever ship captain visited the area next. That captain was Captain Hill, who had been in the vicinity during the winter. Hill carried the letter to Canton and arranged for it to be sent on to Thomas Jefferson. As a result, Jefferson received the letter before Lewis and Clark made their way back from the expedition.
The Corps of Discovery reached Camp Chopunnish in Idaho, near the Clearwater River, where they gathered 65 horses to prepare for crossing the Bitterroot Mountains between Idaho and Montana. The range was still snowed in, so they couldn’t pass through. While waiting on April 11 for the snow to melt, Lewis’s dog Seaman was taken by Native Americans but returned quickly. Lewis warned the chief that any further theft or mischief would lead to death.
On July 3, before crossing the Continental Divide, the Corps of Discovery split into two teams so that Meriwether Lewis could explore the Marias River. Lewis's group of four encountered men from the Blackfeet nation. That night, the Blackfeet attempted to steal their weapons. In the struggle, the soldiers killed two Blackfeet men. Lewis, George Drouillard, and the Field brothers fled over 100 miles in a day before they made camp again.
While Clark was traveling through the Crow tribe’s land, about half of his horses vanished during the night—no Crow had been seen. Lewis and Clark kept going separately until they met up again at the confluence of the Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers on August 11. When the groups came together, one of Clark’s hunters, Pierre Cruzatte, accidentally shot Lewis in the thigh, mistaking him for an elk. After reuniting, the Corps made good speed back down the Missouri River and arrived in St. Louis on September 23, 1806.
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In March 1804, before the expedition even began in May, the Spanish in New Mexico found out from General James Wilkinson that Americans were moving into territory Spain claimed. Once Lewis and Clark started their journey, the Spanish responded by sending four groups northward from Santa Fe under Pedro Vial and José Jarvet. These forces included 52 soldiers, mercenaries, and Native Americans, aiming to capture the entire expedition. They reached the Pawnee settlement on the Platte River in central Nebraska and learned the Americans had passed through days earlier. Vial’s attempt to intercept them was unsuccessful.
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The Lewis and Clark Expedition mapped much of the Pacific Northwest, creating the first accurate drawings of the region’s layout. During their journey, Lewis and Clark produced around 140 maps. Historian Stephen Ambrose noted that the expedition "filled in the main outlines" of the area.
The Corps of Discovery mapped uncharted territories and recorded plants and resources new to European Americans, though Indigenous peoples had long been familiar with them. Lewis and Clark crossed the Continental Divide and encountered Yellowstone, entered Montana, and provided official descriptions of these areas. Their journey into the Pacific Northwest included creating maps and asserting sovereignty through flags and medals. These efforts were part of a legal process to establish territorial claims over Indigenous nations’ lands based on the discovery doctrine.
The Lewis and Clark Expedition was supported by the American Philosophical Society, and Meriwether Lewis and William Clark were trained in several scientific fields including astronomy, botany, climatology, ethnology, geography, meteorology, mineralogy, ornithology, and zoology. While traveling, they encountered more than 70 Native American tribes and documented over 200 previously unknown plant and animal species.
Thomas Jefferson wanted the Lewis and Clark Expedition to show control and strength, making sure Native tribes would recognize U.S. authority, just as European colonizers had done elsewhere. The maps created after the journey helped guide future exploration and settlement across the land.
In 1807, Patrick Gass, who had been promoted to sergeant during the journey, published his own account of the expedition. Then, in 1814, a two-volume history of the Lewis and Clark expedition was issued in Philadelphia by Paul Allen, though he did not name the real author, Nicholas Biddle, a banker. Even so, the complete report remained unavailable to the public for many years. Today, the earliest authorized edition of the journals is held at the Maureen and Mike Mansfield Library at the University of Montana.
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The Lewis and Clark Expedition was instructed by President Jefferson to serve not only as a journey to find a path to the Pacific but also as a mission of observation, tasked with documenting the lives, activities, and cultures of Native American tribes in the Louisiana Territory and the northwest. The explorers were to convey to these groups that their lands were now under U.S. control and that "their great father" in Washington was now their ruler. During the journey, they met many different nations and tribes, some of which provided assistance by sharing knowledge of the land and food. The expedition carried blank leather-bound journals and ink for recording encounters and scientific observations. They also had gifts—medals, ribbons, needles, mirrors, and other items—intended to help smooth negotiations with the Native American chiefs they would meet along the way.
On September 25, 1804, the expedition faced a tense encounter with the Teton-Sioux, also known as the Lakota people, who demanded tribute for passage across the river. Among the chiefs leading this confrontation were Black Buffalo and the Partisan. These seven tribes that made up the Great Sioux Nation had long controlled a vast inland empire and expected gifts from those traveling through their lands. According to Harry W. Fritz, earlier travelers had warned of this powerful and aggressive group, determined to block free trade on the Missouri River. The Sioux were also expecting a retaliatory raid from the Omaha tribe, who had recently killed 75 men, burned 40 lodges, and taken dozens of prisoners.
Captain Lewis began the encounter by giving gifts to the Sioux chief first, an action that upset the Partisan chief. The situation grew tense because Pierre Dorion, the only interpreter for the Sioux, was with another group and also handling diplomacy with a different tribe. Both chiefs received some presents, but neither was pleased, and each demanded more gifts for their warriors and people. Then, members of the Partisan tribe grabbed a boat and one of its oars. Lewis responded firmly, calling for a show of force while Captain Clark drew his sword and warned of retaliation. Before things turned violent, Black Buffalo commanded his men to retreat.
The captains managed to secure passage through the area without further conflict, thanks to improved gifts and a bottle of whiskey. For the next two days, the group set up camp near Black Buffalo's tribe. When they attempted to move on, similar situations arose, but again, the danger was avoided by offering tobacco as a gift.
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As the Corps of Discovery moved westward, they documented the lives of Native American tribes they met along the way, following instructions from President Jefferson to record their customs and ways of living. From the perspective of the expedition members, these societies appeared difficult and severe by European standards. But as the team spent long winters close to various tribes, they began to understand more about how these groups organized themselves socially and what rules governed their daily lives.
Among the Minnetaree and Mandan tribes, it was common for men to marry multiple wives if they could support them, sometimes even marrying sisters. This practice was part of their cultural norms, where women were not expected to remain chaste. In some cases, fathers would sell their daughter to a man for horses or mules. Sioux women were often traded for goods like horses, but among the Shoshone, women were held in higher regard and this practice was not common.
They observed that many Native American nations were in constant conflict with neighboring tribes, particularly the Sioux. While the Sioux remained generally friendly toward white fur traders, they took pride in justifying the near destruction of the once powerful Cahokia nation. The Sioux also boasted about their role in wiping out several other tribes, including the Missouris, Illinois, Kaskaskia, and Piorias, who lived around the upper Mississippi and Missouri rivers.
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Sacagawea was a Shoshone woman born around 1788, and she became part of one of the most significant journeys in American history. She arrived with her husband and owner, Toussaint Charbonneau, on the Corps of Discovery expedition, which aimed to find a route to the Pacific Ocean. Her presence on the journey was vital, though the exact role she played remains a subject of historical interest. She lived until December 20, 1812, leaving behind a legacy tied to the exploration of the American West.
On February 11, 1805, not long after Sacagawea first joined the expedition, she went into labor. The process was slow and difficult, so Charbonneau, the Frenchman who was with her, suggested she be given a potion made from rattlesnake’s rattle to help with the delivery. Lewis, who happened to have some rattlesnake rattle on hand, provided it. Shortly after the potion was given, she gave birth to a healthy baby boy. The child was named Jean Baptiste Charbonneau.
When the Corps of Discovery reached the Marias River on June 16, 1805, Sacagawea grew seriously ill. She found relief by drinking mineral water from a sulphur spring that flowed into the river.
Scholars have noted that much of what has been written about her in literature is exaggeration or fiction. They say Sacagawea did notice some geographical features, but "Sacagawea ... was not the guide for the Expedition, she was important to them as an interpreter and in other ways." Her presence, along with her infant son, likely reassured some indigenous nations. She helped ease tensions and gave the impression of a peaceful mission by talking to chiefs.
Meriwether Lewis wrote negatively about Sacagawea, but William Clark held a more positive opinion of her and even helped support her children later on. In their journals, the men referred to Sacagawea and other Indigenous people using terms like “squar” and “savages.”
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York was an enslaved Black man who joined the Lewis and Clark Expedition as William Clark's personal servant, playing a key role in the journey's success by helping with hunting and heavy labor like pulling boats upstream. His presence made an impression on Native Americans, who had never seen a Black man before. After the expedition ended, Clark did not free York despite his contributions, while other members received rewards such as double pay and land grants. Clark allowed York only a short visit to Kentucky to see his wife before forcing him to return to Missouri. Ten years later, York remained enslaved, working as a wagoner for the Clark family. His final years are uncertain, but in the 1830s, a Black man claiming to have traveled with Lewis and Clark was living as a chief with Native Americans in modern-day Wyoming.
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The Corps of Discovery reached the Pacific Ocean, mapping the territory and establishing a legal claim. They built diplomatic relations and trade with at least two dozen indigenous nations, learning about their languages and customs. Though they did not find a continuous waterway to the ocean, they discovered a Native American trail from the Missouri River to the Columbia River, which led to the Pacific. The expedition gathered information on the land’s natural habitat, bringing back plant seeds, mineral samples, and various specimens. They mapped rivers, mountain ranges, and the locations of many tribes. The team also recorded details about the daily lives of the people they met, collecting artifacts such as bows, clothing, and ceremonial robes.
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Two months after the expedition's end, Thomas Jefferson made his first public statement to Congress, giving a one-sentence summary about the success of the expedition before offering justification for the expenses involved. Over the course of their journey, the Corps of Discovery acquired knowledge of numerous tribes of Native Americans previously unknown to Europeans or Americans; they informed themselves of the trade which may be carried on with them, the best channels and positions for it, and they were able to describe the geography of the route they took with accuracy. Upon their return, the botanical and zoological discoveries drew the intense interest of the American Philosophical Society who requested specimens, various artifacts traded with the Native Americans, and reports on plants and wildlife along with various seeds obtained. Jefferson used seeds from "Missouri hominy corn" along with a number of other unidentified seeds to plant at Monticello which he cultivated and studied. He later reported on the "Indian corn" he had grown as being an "excellent" food source. The expedition helped establish the U.S. presence in the newly acquired territory and beyond and opened the door to further exploration, trade and scientific discoveries.
After returning from their journey, Lewis and Clark brought with them the Mandan chief Shehaka, who had traveled from the Upper Missouri to meet the "Great Father" in Washington. Following his visit, efforts to send him back to his people took several tries and involved multiple military missions before Shehaka was finally able to return safely to his nation.
After returning from their journey, Lewis and Clark faced the challenge of preparing their journals for print. Clark persuaded Nicholas Biddle to take on the task of editing, and the resulting work appeared in 1814. But Biddle’s version left out much of what they had learned about the plants and animals they encountered. For close to a century and a half, this shortened account was the only published record of their findings. As a result, many of their scientific observations were later rediscovered and given new names without credit to the expedition. It wasn’t until 1904–1905, when Reuben Gold Thwaites released his Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, that the public finally learned how extensive their contributions to science truly were.
During the 19th century, references to Lewis and Clark "scarcely appeared" in history books, even during the United States Centennial in 1876, and the expedition was largely forgotten. Lewis and Clark began to gain attention around the beginning of the 20th century. Both the 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition in St. Louis and the 1905 Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition in Portland, Oregon, showcased them as American pioneers. The extent of the expedition's discoveries remained poorly recognized until the middle of the 20th Century, with Lewis and Clark's voyage known mostly as a celebration of US conquest and personal adventures, but since then the expedition has been more thoroughly researched.
In 2004, Gary E. Moulton compiled a complete and reliable set of the Lewis and Clark expedition's journals. Around that same time, the bicentennial of the expedition renewed widespread public interest in Lewis and Clark.
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In 1682, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle made his way down the Mississippi River from the Great Lakes all the way to the Gulf. That journey led the French to set up a series of posts along the river, stretching from New Orleans clear up to the Great Lakes. Later on, other French explorers would follow, among them Pedro Vial, Pierre Antoine, and Paul Mallet. Pedro Vial might have reached Montana earlier than Lewis and Clark did. Then, in 1787, Vial provided Spanish officials with a map of the upper Missouri River and marked the “territories transited by Pedro Vial.”
In 1792, the American explorer Robert Gray discovered the Columbia River while sailing in the Columbia Rediviva, naming it after his ship and claiming it for the United States. Later that same year, the Vancouver Expedition learned of Gray’s discovery and used his maps to explore more than 100 miles up the Columbia, into the Columbia River Gorge. These maps were later used by Lewis and Clark as they made their way down the lower Columbia to reach the Pacific coast.
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In the 1970s, the federal government marked Camp Dubois as the official start of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. That site was where the Corps of Discovery gathered for their winter assembly before heading west. Then, in 2019, the same federal government acknowledged Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, as another starting point for the journey. These designations helped preserve the memory of the route to the Pacific and honored the efforts of those who made the exploration possible.
Since their famous journey, Meriwether Lewis and William Clark have been honored in many ways, from coins and stamps to currency and postage. In 2004, to mark the bicentenary of the expedition, North Dakota State University Research Foundation introduced a new American elm tree cultivar named *Ulmus americana 'Lewis & Clark'*—also known by its selling name Prairie Expedition. This particular tree was developed for its resistance to Dutch elm disease.
Lewis and Clark County in Montana and the Lewis and Clark River in Oregon both carry the names of the expedition's leaders. These places honor the men who led the Corps of Discovery on their journey to the Pacific. The naming reflects the lasting impact of their exploration and the significance of their route through the American West.
Highways 1804 and 1806 in North Dakota honor the years when Lewis and Clark traveled through the region, marking the path of their journey. These routes together make up the section of the Lewis and Clark Trail that passes through the state. The highways reflect the historical significance of those specific years, 1804 and 1806, during which the Corps of Discovery made its way toward the Pacific.
At Yawgoog Scout Reservation in Rockville, Rhode Island, a campsite dedicated to Lewis and Clark commemorates their journey. This location serves as a tribute to both explorers, honoring their role in the Corps of Discovery and the route they took to reach the Pacific.
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