The Names We Kept
How the Language of Identity Changed Over a Century
- 8 chapters
- 1h 3m
- LGBTQ+ History & Studies
- Free · no sign-up
This book traces how LGBTQ identity language evolved through different societies, beginning with early medical classifications and moving through the civil rights movements of the 1900s. It examines how communities in the United States, Singapore, Mexico, and India developed their own ways of describing themselves and their experiences. The work also covers how academic fields like communication studies began analyzing LGBTQ language patterns, and explores how Pride parades shaped public identity. Later chapters look at transgender health care terminology and how medical language changed over time.
Readers interested in the historical development of LGBTQ self-identification will find this comprehensive overview both informative and revealing.
Listen
-
Read this chapter
Overview
LGBTQ history reaches back to ancient times, when same-sex love and diverse gender identities were part of human culture around the world. For centuries, these identities were hidden due to persecution, shame, and secrecy. It wasn’t until recent decades that this history began to be recognized and shared more widely. In 1994, LGBTQ History Month started in the United States, observed each October, including National Coming Out Day on October 11. The United Kingdom began observing it in February starting in 2005, after Section 28 was repealed in England and Wales in 2003 and in Scotland in 2000. A major milestone came in 2001 when the Netherlands became the first country to legalize same-sex marriage, after Queen Beatrix signed the law.
China and Taiwan
In China, male homosexuality was acknowledged since ancient times and appears in famous literary works. The story of the leftover peach from the Spring and Autumn Era tells of Mizi Xia sharing a peach with Duke Ling of Wei. Another tale, the cut sleeve, describes Emperor Ai of Han lying with his lover Dong Xian, carefully cutting his sleeve to avoid waking him. Scholar Pan Guangdan believed many Han emperors had male partners, though these men also lived heterosexual lives. With the Tang dynasty, foreign influences changed attitudes, and by the Song dynasty, male lovers were seen as less legitimate than wives. During the Ming dynasty, the Zhengde Emperor reportedly had a relationship with a Muslim leader named Sayyid Husain, and homosexuality was later called the "southern custom" in Fujian. The Qing dynasty introduced the first law against consensual same-sex relations, though it was lightly punished. In Taiwan, a shrine for Tu'er Shen was rebuilt in 2006 after being destroyed centuries earlier, and in 2019, Taiwan became the first in the region to legalize marriage equality.
Pre-Meiji Japan
In ancient Japan, records show men who had sex with other men, but these practices became more visible during the Edo period. Scholars refer to historical homosexuality in Japan as wakashudō, meaning "way of the wakashū," or nanshoku, which means "male colors." This institution was similar to pederasty in ancient Greece, where older men often engaged in romantic and sexual relationships with younger men, usually in their teens. The Tale of Genji, written in the Heian Era, describes men moved by the beauty of young boys; one scene shows the hero sleeping with a lady's young brother, saying, "Genji pulled the boy down beside him ... Genji, for his part, or so one is informed, found the boy more attractive than his chilly sister." Some references also mention emperors involved in homosexual relationships and "handsome boys retained for sexual purposes" by emperors. Japanese shunga are erotic pictures that include same-sex and opposite-sex love.
Post-Meiji Japan
As Japan began modernizing during the Meiji era, it also absorbed homophobia from Western countries, and attitudes toward same-sex behavior grew more hostile. In 1873, the Ministry of Justice introduced the keikan law, which criminalized homosexual acts.
North Asia
Early Russian ethnographers recorded that Chukchi shamans in Siberia were sometimes said to be called by mystical forces to take part in a form of ritualized homosexual relation with men. This ritual often involved a gender change—a religious ceremony believed to transform their genitalia into those of a female. After the change, they might dress in women's clothing and act in feminine ways. It was thought they would then "lose" masculine traits like hunting skill and instead adopt "feminine" ones, such as healing and nurturing. Homosexual relations outside this specialized role were reportedly not tolerated. Some shamans would take male lovers, even marry other men, with the shaman taking on a "wifely" role. They would sometimes publicly complain about the spirits "forcing" them to engage in these acts, though it remains unknown how they truly felt.
Southeast Asia and the Pacific
In Thailand, same-sex relationships were documented as early as the Ayutthaya period (1351-1767), with temple murals showing men and women together and records from 'Samutthakhot Kham Chan' describing lesbian relationships among royal concubines. In Vietnam, homosexuality was present by at least the 14th century. The Philippines had normalized same-sex marriage by the 1500s, as shown in the Boxer Codex, and gender non-conforming people called babaylan held powerful roles before Spanish colonization. During WWII, many queer Filipinos were forced into sexual slavery by the Japanese imperial army, referred to as "comfort women" or "comfort gays." In Indonesia, the Serat Centhini records bisexuality and homosexuality in Javanese culture, and various indigenous groups had specific terms for gender non-conforming people who often held high social status. Under British colonial rule, Section 377 was imposed across many Asian territories, leaving a lasting anti-LGBTQ legacy. Cambodia supports homosexuality and same-sex marriage, while East Timor has seen political and religious leaders back LGBTQ rights since 2017. In Melanesia, particularly Papua New Guinea, same-sex relationships were part of culture until the mid-20th century. Polynesian societies like Samoa recognized traditional same-sex marriages and accepted transgender people long before colonization. Aboriginal cultures in Australia had non-binary concepts, and Tiwi Islanders had indigenous terms for homosexuality. Māori in New Zealand referred to close same-sex friends as takatāpui, a term now used broadly for LGBTQ people. In Hawaii, māhū were widely accepted before colonization, with intimate same-sex relationships supported by rulers. British colonialism and Christian churches introduced stigma in many Pacific regions.
South Asia
The earliest signs of homophobia in South Asia appear in Zoroastrian texts from around 250 BC. During the Parthian Empire, which included what is now Pakistan, the Zoroastrian Vendidad was written. It laid out sexual codes that interpreted same-sex acts as sinful, with ancient commentary suggesting penalties including death without priestly approval. These ideas influenced later religious practices, spreading through Buddhism in Central Asia and then being overtaken by Islam and Sharia law. Homophobic laws came to the region that is now India primarily through British colonial rule, though some parts of South India and Sri Lanka only saw such laws introduced during this time—not through Islam.
India
In ancient Hindu and Vedic texts, there are numerous descriptions of saints, demigods, and even the Supreme Lord who transcend traditional gender roles, appearing in various combinations of sex and gender. The epic poetry includes same-sex depictions and unions among gods and goddesses, and stories of love between kings and queens. The Kamasutra, an ancient Hindu text on love, addresses same-sex feelings. Hindu temples, like those at Khajuraho, feature depictions of same-sex sexual acts. One of the earliest references to homosexuality in South Asia appears in a Hindu medical journal from Varanasi dated 600 BCE, discussing homosexuality and transexuality neutrally. In modern times, the Hijra represent a third-gender community in South Asia; they may be born male or intersex, and some were born female.
-
Read this chapter
Overview
The history of LGBTQ people in the United States stretches back centuries, shaped by social stigma and legal persecution. Until the 20th century, most lived in secrecy due to widespread ostracism. The nation's Protestant roots fostered a heteronormative culture, reinforced by sodomy laws—though these actually began with King Henry VIII and the Buggery Act of 1533, not the Puritans. These laws targeted same-sex acts, though earlier, the Catholic Church had occasionally prosecuted such cases. LGBTQ life before the mid-1900s, especially for lesbians, is largely preserved in personal writings. The process of decriminalizing homosexuality started in 1962 with Illinois repealing its anti-sodomy law. It continued until 2003, when Lawrence v. Texas struck down the last remaining laws. In 1973, the American Psychiatric Association removed homosexuality from its list of mental disorders. As the century progressed, LGBTQ individuals began organizing for rights, with bisexual and transgender voices growing stronger. The GLBT acronym emerged, and key advances included decriminalization, domestic partnerships, anti-discrimination laws, HIV/AIDS advocacy, and marriage equality.
Indigenous America
In 1542, Spanish explorer Alvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca wrote "La Relación," or "The Account," describing his time living with the Karankawa people from 1527 to 1534. In it, he recorded seeing “a man married to another man,” calling them “womanish, impotent men who cover their bodies like women and do women's tasks.” This is among the oldest known records of LGBTQ individuals in North America. Cabeza de Vaca’s account reflects a broader pattern across Native American communities, where gender diversity was recognized and recorded in over 150 nations. Many of these societies did not follow a strict binary system, and people who existed outside it had various names depending on the tribe. A widely used term today is two-spirit.
Protestant Reformation
In 1533, King Henry VIII passed the Buggery Act, making sodomy a capital crime with property confiscation, though the law's scope included bestiality and heterosexual anal intercourse. Originally aimed at weakening the Catholic Church during monastic dissolution, the law was revived by Queen Elizabeth after Mary I repealed it. When British colonies like Jamestown began in 1607, they brought these sodomy laws to America. Edward Coke, appointed by King James I, interpreted the crime narrowly, ruling that sodomy required penetration and that boys under 14 shouldn’t be punished. Only Pennsylvania codified imprisonment instead of death for white men, while Black men faced execution. The first documented execution for sodomy in Virginia was Richard Cornish in 1624. After 1776, colonies slowly replaced the death penalty with prison time, but the laws lingered for another two centuries.
Jamestown
Jamestown was founded in 1607, marked by hunger and struggle. John Smith's journals mention men trading "love" for food, with a note calling it "sailor's abuses." By 1610, sodomy laws had been passed, though rarely enforced. The colony was overwhelmingly male, leading to what historians call "situational sexuality," making identity questions hard to sort out. In 1629, Thomas/Thomasine Hall brought controversy—a maidservant found with another woman, with word spreading that Hall was really a man. Under Jamestown law, homosexual fornication was illegal, which could have led to punishment. But Hall was intersex, had lived as both a man and a woman, and identified as both. After several attempts to determine Hall's sex, the court gave up and sentenced Hall to wear men's clothing with women's accessories.
Maryland
Maryland was founded in 1634, just like Jamestown, and faced a similar problem with a male-heavy population. In those early years, many men lived together in groups called "mateships," sharing homes, work, and property. Some of these arrangements may have included romantic relationships between men. According to scholars John D’Emilio and Estelle Freeman, the region’s early gender imbalance created conditions where sexual behavior was less strictly controlled, and male-male liaisons were probably more accepted than in places with balanced populations.
Puritans
In the early American colonies, Puritan communities brought their own moral code, shaped by British law and religious texts like Leviticus, to define sodomy. Plymouth passed its first sodomy law in 1636, followed by Massachusetts Bay in 1641 and New Haven in 1642. The trial of Nicolas Sension revealed how some men used their power over younger servants for decades. Reverend Michael Wigglesworth’s diary shows internal struggles with male lust. Sodomy laws were harsh but not always enforced; executions were rare, usually reserved for cases involving children. In 1648, Massachusetts updated its laws to protect boys under fourteen, and Plymouth followed in 1671. The first documented conviction for lesbian behavior occurred in 1649, when Sarah White Norman was forced to publicly apologize, while Mary Vincent Hammon, believed to be only fifteen, received no punishment.
Aftermath of Puritans
The Puritans were like other Christian groups of their time, holding many of the same prejudices. But they stood out for valuing education and being willing to change old traditions when they believed it would lead to greater moral good. This openness led to disagreements over how to interpret the Bible, which eventually caused Puritanism to split into different branches—presbyterians, congregationalists, and new sects that would later evolve into Unitarian Universalism. These denominations would go on to become some of the most welcoming and affirming Christian groups in the United States today.
Revolutionary Era
In 1771, a case came before the courts involving an assault and battery when John Gray sued Lendall or Lindall Pitts after Pitts struck him in anger. The reason for the violence was Pitts’s discovery that the woman he had been flirting with was actually a cross-dressing man. Gray won a small settlement, though the judge appeared to ignore the fact that cross-dressing was illegal under Massachusetts law. Then, in 1776, Public Universal Friend—also known as The Friend—began preaching throughout New England after falling ill and claiming to be reborn, living a genderless life and gathering followers into what became known as “The Society of Universal Friends.”
-
Read this chapter
Overview
Homosexuality was criminalized during British rule in Singapore, first between 1819 and 1942, then again from 1946 to 1959, even though it was recognized among locals. After the Japanese occupation and independence, gay and transgender people became more visible on the streets, with some nightclubs catering to them by the 1970s. That decade also marked Singapore’s emergence as a hub for gender-reassignment surgery. By the 1980s, HIV cases prompted concern, and in the 1990s, police actions against gay expression increased due to the stigma attached to the disease, helping fuel the growth of a gay rights movement.
Pre-colonial period (up to 1819)
Very little is known about Singapore before the British arrived in 1819, especially when it comes to the history of homosexuality. It’s believed that practices and ideas around sexual minorities were similar to those in nearby Malay societies. In traditional Malay culture, there was no concept of a modern gay person, but same-sex behavior wasn’t entirely absent. Society recognized individuals who didn’t fit strictly into male or female roles—those known as mak nyah. They were accepted and even integrated into community life, though they occupied a marginal place. These third-gender figures are comparable to hijras in India or fa'afafine in Polynesia. Unfortunately, there’s little scholarly research on this topic in traditional Malay culture.
Traditional Asian attitudes to homosexuality
In Ming dynasty China, there were institutionalised practices around gay marriage among Hokkien men. These customs traveled with people moving to Singapore, where they were kept discreet in a place that officially supported Victorian values. Among these men, it was common for the younger of two male lovers to be adopted as a godson by the parents of the older man. This was done during a ceremony at the ancestral altar, which included offerings such as pigs' trotters. Similarly, among Indian communities, 'maasti' — sexual play between men who weren’t necessarily gay — was likely widespread due to a lack of women.
British law & homosexuality
Under British colonial rule, Singapore adopted Victorian laws criminalizing homosexuality, with Section 377A of the Penal Code punishing sodomy. From 1938 to 1941, seven major cases were prosecuted; although four involved Europeans, only one was convicted. In 1938, Lim Eng Kooi and Lim Eng Kok, two well-known Chinese men from Penang, were each sentenced to seven months for violating the law. A Tan Ah Yiow received nine months in 1941 after being caught with a European client. Lee Hock Chee was prosecuted in April 1941 after a lascar witnessed him molesting a sleeping boy. Captain Douglas Marr was accused in April 1941 of committing an act of gross indecency with a Malay youth, Sudin bin Daud, but was acquitted despite evidence found in his room. In May 1941, Gunner Ernest Allen became the only European to be convicted under Section 377A after being found with a witness in a house on Anguilla Road. In July 1941, a man known as "Mr. X" was sentenced to five years for admitting to homosexual practices and being blackmailed by Chinese locals over several years.
World War II to 1960s
When Japanese occupied Singapore in 1942, their laws replaced colonial ones, making gay sex technically legal since it hadn't been criminalised in Japan, though under occupation's lack of rights and rule of law, this was more a legal quirk than real freedom. After the war, gay cruising continued in back alleys and parks, ignored by police, while transgender people on Bugis Street became a well-known sight, drawing tourists. In the 1960s, national service began requiring all 18-year-old males to serve. Homosexuality and transsexuality were listed in the Singapore Armed Forces' "Directory of Diseases," with a code for "disease." Enlistees had to declare their status during medical exams, often without clear understanding of the difference between the two. Those who came out were usually assigned clerical work and given a lower Public Employment Status. Post-operative trans women were exempted, recognized as women by the government, but it's unclear if post-operative trans men served.
1970s
In the 1970s, as Singapore grew more prosperous, English-educated middle-class homosexuals were exposed to Western social liberalism and emerging gay movements through travel and media, influencing ideas about local societal change. By the late 1970s, trips to Thailand and Japan introduced Singaporeans to more accepting Asian cultures. Nightlife entrepreneurs began catering to gay customers, with The Hangar allowing gatherings of gay men for the first time. Other venues like My Place, Black Velvet, and the NCO Club at Beach Road attracted gay patrons, though some straight clubbers complained, leading authorities to post signs prohibiting "No man and man dancing." In November 1971, New Nation published an interview with a trans woman, and in July 1972, it ran an exposé titled "They are different," featuring photographs of gay couples and transvestites. A Shaw Brothers film, Ai nu, starred Lily Ho and Betty Pei Ti as a lesbian couple, ending with a poignant kiss of death. Public swimming pools and shopping centers created spaces for cruising, increasing both encounters and public complaints. Surgeons like Prof. S Shan Ratnam performed gender reassignment surgeries starting in 1971, after psychological evaluations by Prof. Tsoi Wing Foo. Later, Dr. Ilancheran at Alexandra Hospital also conducted trans male surgeries.
1980s
In the early 1980s, as Singapore prospered, gay men gathered in clubs like Shadows, Marmota, Legend, and Niche, though not exclusively gay. By mid-1980s, those venues closed, replaced by Sunday Night Gay Parties known as "Shadow Nights," run by former Shadows management. These events took place at places like Rascals, Heartthrob, The Gate, Music World, and Studebaker's, which later became Venom. A 1985 HIV case shocked the community, leading to formation of Action For AIDS (AFA) in 1988, a group that provided support and education, even though not officially part of gay movement. Lesbians found space at Crocodile Rock, still Singapore's oldest lesbian bar. Cruising continued in spots like Hong Lim Park and Boat Quay, with little police interference, while lesbian couples faced harassment in public. By mid-1980s, pubs and karaoke bars such as Babylon and Inner Circle opened along Tanjong Pagar, helping establish area as gay hub. Large bookshops began stocking foreign gay-themed literature in sections labeled "Gender Studies."
1990s
In the 1990s, Singapore's gay community faced increasing repression as the government promoted "Asian values" and cracked down on LGBTQ spaces. Police raids targeted gay discos and cruising areas, including a November 1993 arrest of 12 men near Tanjong Rhu's Fort Road Beach where a broadcaster was among those punished with caning and prison time. Performance artist Josef Ng was banned from art after protesting; the government also censored gay media like I-S Magazine and banned playwright Chay Yew's work for promoting homosexuality. Despite this, the Internet offered new ways for LGBTQ people to connect, with activists like Alex Au using email lists and websites such as Yawning Bread to discuss issues and build community. The first application to register a gay rights group, People Like Us, was rejected in 1997, drawing international attention. In 1996, post-operative trans people were granted the right to update their identity cards, and in 1998, Senior Minister Lee Kuan Yew told CNN International that the government would not harass gays as long as they didn't interfere with others — a statement that shaped official policy for years.
-
Read this chapter
Overview
The history of LGBTQ people in Mexico spans three major periods: pre-Columbian, colonial, and post-independence, though hostility toward queer identities connects them all. Evidence from before and during colonization is limited and often shaped by European bias, leaving unclear what Indigenous peoples really thought. Some groups, like the Mexica, seem to have been homophobic, while others were more accepting, even honoring Two-Spirit individuals as spiritual leaders. The colonial and post-independence eras remain largely unstudied, except for key events such as the 1658 executions of sodomites and the 1901 Dance of the Forty-One. In the 21st century, growing visibility, especially due to the LGBTQ community's potential as consumers and tourists, led to legal progress. By 2003, laws against discrimination were passed, civil unions became legal in some areas, and in 2009 Mexico City approved same-sex marriage—first in Latin America. Yet even then, in 2007, Mexico still had one of the highest rates of anti-LGBTQ violence in the world.
Pre-Columbian era
Most knowledge about pre-Columbian peoples comes from Spanish conquest reports, which must be treated carefully since accusations of sodomy were used to justify invasion. These accounts, shaped by defenders and opponents of natives, often exaggerated or minimized homosexual behavior, making it hard to know the truth. The historian Antonio de Herrera reached this conclusion as early as 1601. Among indigenous groups, the two-spirit tradition was widespread; the Spanish called them "berdache," seeing them as passive homosexuals, and they were often mistreated. In Maya culture, ritual and same-sex behavior were linked—shamans and priests engaged in such acts. When the Toltecs came, they brought more public sex, and later the Itzá added anal sex and sexual ceremonies. Yet the Maya, with their hybrid culture, had mixed views; the Chilam Balam books mocked the Itzá, blaming homosexuals for societal decay. The Zapotecs, in contrast, accepted a third gender called muxe, who lived both male and female roles, and this tradition continues today.
The Mexica
In pre-colonial Mexica society, same-sex relationships weren’t criminalized, according to Monarquia Indiana by Juan de Torquemada. While Spanish records like the Florentine Codex, translated by Dibble and Anderson, reflect homophobic biases from the U.S. at the time, evidence suggests that gender and sexuality were understood differently. Homosexual men were known and sometimes publicly identified, yet there’s no record of executions for male homosexuality. Women faced less social stigma than men, though both were disapproved of. The Mexica connected homosexual men to Titlacahuan, a trickster aspect of Tezcatlipoca, who carried erotic symbols and was linked with sexual excess. Classical Nahuatl had four terms for homosexuality, each describing acts rather than identity. Effeminate men were called cihuāyōlloh, meaning “one with a woman’s heart,” and intersex people were known as cihuāoquichtli, or “woman-man.”
xōchihuah
In Classical Nahuatl, the term xōchihuah described people who wore women’s clothing and carried out women’s work. The name combined xōchitl, meaning “flower,” with -huah, translating to “owner of,” making it literally “flower-bearer.” In Mexica culture, flowers were associated with excess and sexual desire. These individuals occupied a formal but diminished place in society, living as dependents of powerful nobles. They managed household duties, cleansed temples, and traveled with warriors, offering services that included sexual ones. The verb te-xōchihuia, constructed with the prefix te-, indicating an action done to a person, meant “to use flowers on someone” and was understood metaphorically as “to seduce.”
cuīlōni
In Mexico, the term cuīlōni described a specific role in sexual practices, part of a broader category known as xōchihuah. The word itself came from cuīlō, which was the non-active form of the verb te-cui, meaning “to sexually penetrate someone.” So cuīlōni literally meant “one who is sexually penetrated.” This reflects how language shaped identity and social understanding in that time.
The conquest
Since early Spanish contact, Indigenous peoples were conflated with cannibalism and sodomy. Diego Alvarez Chanca reported in 1494 that Caribs practiced sodomy by removing male organs for sexual acts akin to eunuchs. Peter Martyr d'Anghiera wrote in 1511 of Vasco Núñez de Balboa killing forty men dressed as women who “engaged in unnatural” acts, throwing them to dogs, claiming such acts caused natural disasters. Hernán Cortés reported in 1519 that Veracruz inhabitants were all sodomites. An anonymous Italian conquistador described worship of phalluses and human sacrifice in Pánuco, linking it to “ungodly saracens.” Bernal Díaz del Castillo and Juan de Grijalva noted sodomy in Indigenous art. Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés included such accounts in his works. Núñez Cabeza de Vaca wrote of “amarionados,” men who dressed as women but fought. Queen Isabella banned maguey use in 1529, linking it to drunkenness and human sacrifice. These narratives justified empire by equating Indigenous practices with sin, reinforcing conquest as a holy mission echoing the Reconquista. Francisco de Vitoria argued that sins like sodomy could be stopped by force, tying Moor, sodomite, and Indian in a single damning equivalence.
Viceroyalty of New Spain
In the early 1500s, Spanish chroniclers were shocked by gender role reversal and male-male sexual relations among indigenous peoples in what is now Mexico. Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés described how some native leaders, called naguas, dressed as women and performed domestic tasks after engaging in same-sex relationships. The Spanish labeled this behavior “sodomy,” using it to justify cultural destruction and forced conversion. Historians like Francisco López de Gómara and Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda portrayed indigenous peoples as inherently inferior, while Friar Bernardino de Sahagún and Bernal Díaz del Castillo linked such practices to rituals of sacrifice and cannibalism. Bartolomé de las Casas countered these claims, arguing that the Spanish had wrongly accused natives of sodomy, though he acknowledged isolated cases. He cited reports that indigenous priests punished offenders by burning or drowning them. Later writers like Friar Gregorio García claimed that before the Spanish arrival, many indigenous groups punished sodomy severely, believing it to be a trick of the devil. These accounts continued into the 1600s, with mentions in works by Cristóbal de Agüero and Friar Ángel Serra. Indigenous voices, such as Fernando de Alva Cortés Ixtlilxochitl, also joined the defense of their cultures.
Independent Mexico
After Mexico gained independence from Spain in 1821, the Inquisition ended and colonial laws against homosexuality were lifted. The French Revolution brought the Napoleonic Penal Code, which no longer criminalized private sexual acts between adults. The government said law should not interfere with personal conscience, only enforcing "minimum ethics indispensable to maintaining society," which included laws against public homosexual behavior. During the brief French occupation from 1862 to 1867, Maximilian I was rumored to be gay, and his wife Carlota became pregnant possibly by the baron Alfred Van der Smissen while Maximilian surrounded himself with male friends like Prince Félix Salm-Salm. In 1871, a new Penal Code introduced vague laws against "attack on morality and proper customs," which were used to target homosexuals. By the late 19th century, a homosexual subculture had formed in Mexico City, with historians identifying places like gay bathhouses and prisons as gathering spots. In 1918, Manuel Palafox, secretary general of Emiliano Zapata, was accused of leaking information through his homosexual relationships. In the 1930s, bars and baths for homosexuals opened in areas like Alameda and Zócalo, and by World War II, there were ten to fifteen such venues, including El África and El Triumfo. But in 1959, Mayor Uruchurtu closed all gay bars after a triple crime.
-
Read this chapter
Overview
LGBTQ people are well documented in ancient Indian art and literature, with evidence showing that homosexuality and transsexuality were accepted in major dharmic religions. Hinduism and its offshoots weren't homophobic, and the third gender was recognized as equal in ancient texts, including medical works of Hindu and Buddhist traditions. This acceptance lasted until the medieval period, when parts of northern India were influenced by Zoroastrianism around 250 BCE and later Islam, both of which forbade homosexual sex and shaped regional norms. Under Mughal rule, which came from the Mongol Empire and governed large parts of India and Central Asia, LGBTQ people faced severe persecution in Islamic communities, though Mughal leaders generally tolerated non-Muslim cultures. European colonialism brought more centralized legal systems that enforced Christian-European morals, criminalizing same-sex relations and transgender identities. In the 21st century, after independence, there has been significant progress in liberalizing LGBTQ laws.
Ancient period
In ancient India, Hinduism included a broad range of literary and artistic works that portrayed LGBTQ lives, without clear moral condemnations of homosexuality or transsexuality. The Kama Sutra, compiled by Vatsyayana around the 4th century, describes homosexual practices as part of kama, or desire, one of life’s four spiritual goals. It details techniques for men of the third sex—both masculine and feminine types—and notes that these men, who sometimes married each other, were bound by love and trust. The Arthashastra, a 2nd century BCE text on statecraft, mentions that homosexual acts were punished less severely than many heterosexual ones, with lighter fines and penances for those in the priestly class.
Early modern period
Early Mughal emperors were often tolerant of Hindu society and allowed them to live as they wanted. References to homoeroticism appear throughout Indian Islamic culture, especially in Mughal artwork and poetry. The first Mughal Emperor, Babur, wrote about his passion for a male "lover" named Baburi in his autobiography, the Baburnama. He wrote: "Occasionally Baburi came to me, but I was so bashful that I could not look him in the face, much less converse freely with him."
1500s
In 1528, J.M. John Marshal, a doctoral research scholar at Goa University in Taleigao, documented that the judiciary in Goa punished a Muslim man for sodomy. By 1560, homosexuality had been banned across much of the Portuguese Empire. The Portuguese brought the Goa Inquisition to address issues of sodomy and went on to prosecute people engaged in same-sex activity.
1600s
In 1607, German soldier Alberto Homemo in the Portuguese army was executed without trial for sodomy, according to inquisition records. The case, documented by Inquisitor Jorge Ferreira, stated that Alberto, influenced by the devil, had committed the "horrible and abominable vice of sodomy" since age 16, with many men across cities including Portuguese Bombay and Malacca. He was declared infamous, his goods confiscated, and handed over to secular justice to be burnt alive. Later, in 1667 or 1675, the Mughal Empire's Fatawa-e-Alamgiri set punishments for homosexuality, ranging from lashes to death by stoning, depending on social status. While pederasty was sometimes seen as "pure love" among Central Asian groups, it was not common in India. For instance, a governor of Burhanpur was killed by a young servant he tried to be intimate with. Meanwhile, Muslim Urdu poetry of the time occasionally expressed homoerotic themes, though not explicitly homosexual in nature.
1700s
In 1723, the literary work of Mir Taqi Mir included poems and ghazals that alluded to male lovers. According to Ruth Vanita and Saleem Kidwai in Same-sex love in India: readings from literature and history, his writing "represents homoeroticism," and together with other authors, he helped create a form of erotic commentary focused on young men. Then, in 1791, the French Indian territory of Pondicherry took a step by decriminalizing homosexuality.
1800s
In 1861, the British Raj replaced Mughal laws with the 1862 Indian Penal Code, which included Section 377, criminalizing "carnal intercourse against the order of nature." Drafted by Thomas Babington Macaulay, the law was based on British anti-sodomy statutes and left the phrase "order of nature" undefined, allowing broad interpretation. It punished penetrative acts with up to ten years in prison or life, and a fine. Only five cases were recorded under this law until 1920. The same year, the Criminal Tribes Act labeled hijras as "criminal tribes," subjecting them to surveillance and forced registration. In 1884, the case of Khairati vs Queen Empress saw a man arrested for cross-dressing and later acquitted after a medical examination suggested he was a "habitual catamite." The ambiguity of Section 377 and colonial moral standards shaped how sexuality was understood in India under British rule.
1920s
In 1924, "Chocolate" appeared in Matvala, a Calcutta biweekly, written by Pandey Bechan Sharma, known as Ugra. The tale follows Dinkar Prasad, compared to Majnun, as he struggles with unrequited love. His friend Manohar teases him in Banarasi Hindi, and when Dinkar praises a verse, Manohar asks if his "Urdu" has been defeated. A boy named Ramesh enters, and Dinkar flees, with Manohar revealing that Ramesh is Dinkar's "chocolate," the object of his romantic-erotic affection. The narrator mocks this same-sex desire, saying, "He'll sift through history, finish off the Puranas, and prove to you that love of boys is not unnatural but natural." That December, Ugra was imprisoned for nine months under section 124A of the IPC after editing the victory issue of Swadesh. In 1927, he published Chocolate: And Other Writings On Male Homoeroticism in Calcutta, including works like Hey Sukumar and Jail Mein.
-
Read this chapter
Overview
LGBTQ communication studies is a field that looks at how people communicate within LGBTQ+ communities, across many different areas of life. Researchers in this area study topics like sex, sexuality, and gender identity. They examine these ideas in personal relationships, families, small groups, and even in larger organizations. The work also explores how communication happens across cultures and countries, and how it connects to rhetoric, performance, storytelling, and media. This field helps us understand how LGBTQ+ people express themselves and relate to one another in a variety of settings.
LGBTQ+ interpersonal communication
Interpersonal communication is the process of connecting between two people through verbal and nonverbal means, whether in personal or professional settings. In LGBTQ+ relationships, this includes dating, marriage, friendship, peer dynamics, and workplace interactions like supervisor-subordinate roles. It also considers how disabled queer and trans individuals communicate and find their voice at work. LGBTQ+ people navigate these relationships in ways that challenge traditional norms, and by studying these patterns, researchers explore themes like intimacy, commitment, and family structures within queer and trans communities.
LGBTQ+ dating and communication
Interpersonal communication research looks at how identity, disclosure, and connection play out in people’s lives, especially for those in LGBTQ+ communities. For many, dating apps like Grindr are now a main way to find partners and build social support. One study found that these platforms helped users feel more connected to a gay community, showing how digital spaces can be vital for relationship building—especially in places like China. Stressors such as discrimination and internalized stigma deeply affect how LGBTQ+ people communicate and connect. Research also shows that offline and online harassment influence this process, while LGBTQ+ Facebook groups may help. Trans individuals, too, engage in safer sex conversations with partners they trust, which often leads to actual safe sex practices like using condoms or dental dams.
LGBTQ+ marriage and communication
Interpersonal communication scholars study how same-sex couples handle the challenge of keeping their marriages private—not just from society but also from their families. This need for privacy impacts their relationships in deep ways, affecting intimacy, trust, and support both within the couple and with family members like parents or siblings. Many LGBTQ+ people avoid sharing details about their marriage out of fear that their family won’t understand. These individuals learn to balance honest communication with their loved ones while still nurturing closeness in their own marriage. Within these unions, spouses must figure out how to talk with extended family—sometimes separately and sometimes as a team. Research shows that many LGBTQ+ couples also build new families, facing unique struggles such as discrimination, legal issues, barriers to benefits, and public criticism of their marriages.
LGBTQ+ friendship and communication
Friendships in the LGBTQ+ community are built through communication, and researchers study how social media helps queer people connect for dating, casual encounters, emotional or physical support, or safety. Apps like Gaydar and Gay.com offer spaces for these connections, though studies advise caution due to risks like catfishing or harassment. Language itself becomes a tool for bonding and protection—terms such as SNAP or Playful Putdowns help LGBTQ+ individuals defend against harm when used by others who understand the shared vocabulary. Communication styles vary across groups; for instance, gay men may use vibrant personalities or drag performances to attract friends. Inclusive environments, like youth summer camps that provide gender-neutral bathrooms and name tags with pronouns, also foster connection. Such spaces help LGBTQ+ youth feel welcomed by their peers and allies who respect identity and use appropriate language.
LGBTQ+ peer bullying
Interpersonal communication scholars have studied how LGBTQ+ students are bullied by their peers in schools and universities across the U.S. and beyond. Data from GLSEN and the HRC surveys show that LGBTQ+ youth face bullying and encounter rules that are unfair to them. This hurts their grades and affects how they feel about themselves and their lives. Research shows that there’s no clear plan to fix this problem, which keeps schools unsafe for LGBTQ+ students. Scholars suggest new communication methods, like training educators, and say it's important to build inclusive spaces and challenge the cultural beliefs that allow bullying to continue. GSAs, or Gay Straight Alliances, help support LGBTQ+ students and make school environments less hostile for them.
LGBTQ+ supervisor and subordinate communication
Research shows that how LGBTQ+ people talk with their bosses and coworkers affects their relationships at work, which in turn influences how happy they are on the job. When supervisors use words like sharing support for LGBTQ+ causes, mentioning queer events, or using someone’s correct pronouns, it shows they’re allies. A review of studies in communication research found that when managers and coworkers actually back inclusive policies, it helps LGBTQ+ employees feel safer and more supported, which also helps keep queer and trans workers in their jobs. Some researchers also look at how LGBTQ+ employees decide whether a coworker is truly an ally.
LGBTQ+ family communication
Family communication refers to how people within a family interact, sharing information, emotions, and working through conflicts, which shapes both personal and social growth. In LGBTQ+ family communication, researchers have found that the idea of family can go beyond traditional ties like biology or marriage. Instead, it includes chosen relationships built on acceptance, love, and support. A qualitative study from an interactive art project during a Pride festival showed that LGBTQ+ people and their allies often define family through unconditional love rather than conventional familial bonds.
-
Read this chapter
Overview
A pride parade is a celebration where LGBTQ people and their allies come together to honor self-acceptance, achievements, and rights. Some parades also protest for legal changes like same-sex marriage. The largest of these events happen every June to remember the 1969 Stonewall riots in New York City, which sparked the modern LGBTQ rights movement. In 1970, marches took place in Chicago, New York City, Los Angeles, and San Francisco on the first anniversary of Stonewall. These gatherings became annual and spread around the world. By 2019, the biggest Pride celebration ever was held in New York to mark the 50th anniversary of Stonewall, with five million people attending in Manhattan alone.
Background
In the 1960s and 1970s, public demonstrations in the US took on new urgency as people demanded civil rights, protested the war, and pushed for LGBTQ+ equality. One of the first such events was a 1965 "homophile march" organized by the Mattachine Society and Daughters of Bilitis, which marched outside the White House to call attention to discrimination in federal employment. That same year, members of those groups also participated in picket lines during the Annual Reminder protests. Later that decade, Mattachine members joined efforts supporting gay men held in Cuban labor camps. Then, on Saturday, June 28, 1969, a police raid at the Stonewall Inn in Greenwich Village sparked a riot. The bar, frequented by many of the most marginalized in the gay community—including transvestites, transgender people, effeminate young men, hustlers, and homeless youth—became the site of resistance that would help ignite the modern LGBTQ+ rights movement.
First pride marches
On June 27, 1970, organizers in Chicago led a march from Washington Square Park to the Water Tower, which later turned into a spontaneous route toward the Civic Center. That same day, San Francisco held a march and Los Angeles hosted a “Gay-in,” with Morris Kight, Reverend Troy Perry, and Reverend Bob Humphries planning the event under the name Christopher Street West. The Los Angeles parade struggled for a permit due to police resistance, but legal pressure eventually secured one after a court ruling that upheld freedom of expression. Over 1,000 people joined the quiet march down Hollywood Boulevard. In New York, on June 28, 1970, activists commemorated the first Christopher Street Liberation Day, an idea proposed by Craig Rodwell and others at the Eastern Regional Conference of Homophile Organizations in Philadelphia. The event was organized by a group including Fred Sargeant, Ellen Broidy, and Brenda Howard, with support from national homophile organizations and the Oscar Wilde Memorial Bookshop. These early marches set the stage for more celebrations across the country, with names like Gay Liberation Marches and Gay Freedom Day spreading as cities began hosting their own annual parades.
Description
Pride parades began as political acts of resistance, especially in places where being LGBTQ+ was dangerous. In accepting cities, they've become festive events like Mardi Gras, with floats, music, and drag queens, while still including educational and political groups like local LGBT organizations, churches, and PFLAG. Even celebratory parades remember AIDS and anti-LGBT violence victims. Some are funded by governments or corporations and marketed as tourist attractions. In some countries, these events are now called Pride Festivals, offering carnival-like atmospheres with concerts, food, and games. The line between marchers and spectators can blur or become stark depending on local attitudes. Historically, "Gay" was used broadly to describe the whole community, though Stonewall riots were led by lesbians, bisexuals, transgender people, and gay men. By the late 1970s and early 1980s, as original participants aged or passed away, confusion grew over who had actually taken part in early activism. Language evolved to be more inclusive, moving from "Gay" to "Lesbian and Gay," and finally to "Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender" or simply "Pride." These parades now happen in many urban areas where at least 80% of the population lives in cities.
South Africa
In 1990, Johannesburg hosted the first pride parade in South Africa, marking the beginning of such events across the African continent. This march took place near the end of apartheid, on October 13. The country’s 1996 constitution includes Section Nine, which ensures equality and protects people from discrimination based on sexual orientation. The original Joburg Pride organizing group ended in 2013 due to internal conflict over whether the parade should continue as a platform for political advocacy. A new committee formed in May 2013 to lead what was called “People’s Pride,” described as an inclusive and explicitly political movement for social justice. In the Johannesburg area, events like Soweto Pride happen annually in Meadowlands, while Ekurhuleni Pride takes place in KwaThema. Pride parades also occur in Cape Town, Durban, Port Elizabeth, and Polokwane.
Uganda
In August 2012, the first Ugandan pride parade took place in Entebbe to protest how the government treated LGBT citizens and the efforts by Parliament to pass harsher sodomy laws, known as the Kill the Gays Bill, which would have sentenced aggravated homosexuality to life imprisonment. A second pride parade followed in August 2013. The law was enacted in December 2013 but later declared invalid by Uganda’s Constitutional Court on August 1, 2014, on technical grounds. Despite signs the ruling could be appealed or the law reintroduced, Ugandans held a third pride parade in Entebbe on August 9, 2014, while homosexual acts remained illegal in the country.
Hong Kong
The first International Day Against Homophobia pride parade in Hong Kong took place on May 16, 2005, with the message "Turn Fear into Love," asking for acceptance and care for gender and sexual minorities. By 2008, the event had grown to over 1,000 participants, making it the second largest in East Asia after Taipei’s. In 2013, more than 5,200 people joined the march. The parade continued annually, except in 2010 due to budget issues. In 2018, it broke its previous record with 12,000 participants. A man was arrested for violating the law of "outraging public decency" by wearing only his underwear in a designated parade area.
India
On June 29, 2008, pride events took place in four Indian cities—Delhi, Bangalore, Pondicherry, and Kolkata—where about 2,200 people gathered. Kolkata had already held its first such event in 1999, making it South Asia's earliest pride walk, and had continued organizing them annually since 2003. The parades were peaceful, with no attacks or protests, though the BJP opposed the concept. The next day, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh urged greater tolerance toward homosexuals at an AIDS event. On August 16, 2008—just one day after India's Independence Day—the gay community in Mumbai held its first formal pride parade, demanding changes to anti-gay laws. A Delhi high court ruled on July 2, 2009, that consensual homosexual acts weren't criminal, but the Supreme Court reversed that decision in 2013 under pressure from conservative groups, re-criminalizing homosexuality. Pride parades also occurred in smaller cities like Nagpur and Madurai. By 2010, attendance had grown, with an estimated 3,500 in Delhi and 1,500 in Bangalore. Then, on September 6, 2018, India's Supreme Court legalized sex between same-sex adults.
-
Read this chapter
Overview
Transgender health care addresses the physical and mental health needs of transgender people, including treatments that help align a person’s body with their gender identity. In the 1920s, physician Magnus Hirschfeld began studying gender dysphoria and human sexuality, challenging social norms and coining the term "transvestite," which is now known as "transgender." His work was cut short during the Nazi era when many transgender people were persecuted. In 1966, the Johns Hopkins Gender Identity Clinic opened in the U.S., offering hormone therapy, surgery, and counseling. It required a "Real Life Test" before surgery, where patients had to live as their desired gender. The clinic closed in 1979 under the direction of Paul R. McHugh.
Medical characterization of gender variance
For centuries, medicine saw gender variance as a pathology. The World Health Organization included gender dysphoria in the International Classification of Diseases as a mental disorder until 2018. In the American Psychiatric Association's DSM-5, it was previously called "transsexualism" and "gender identity disorder." That same year, the ICD-11 introduced "gender incongruence," describing it as a marked and persistent mismatch between an individual's experienced gender and assigned sex. But the difference between gender dysphoria and gender incongruence isn't always clear in medical writing. Some studies say treating gender variance as a medical issue harms transgender people's health, while others argue that diagnosing gender incongruence can be meaningful and helpful on personal and social levels. Because there are many ways to define or classify those who identify as transgender, researchers cannot agree on how common these experiences are in the general population. A recent review pointed out the need for standardized methods when collecting data about people who present as transgender.
Mental health assistance
Trans individuals experience significant mental health challenges due to the discrimination they face. Studies show that between 32 and 50 percent have attempted suicide, a rate linked to victimization, bullying, violence, and rejection from family and society. They also suffer from depression and anxiety at much higher rates than the general population. While gender-affirming care can improve mental health, ongoing minority stress limits its effectiveness. Mental health support like psychotherapy plays a key role, and assessments may happen before starting medical transition to ensure informed consent. However, requiring therapy as a condition for care is now discouraged in trans health protocols, as is trying to steer someone’s identity in a specific direction.
Identity exploration
Healthcare providers working with trans adolescents must create a respectful space for young people to explore their gender identity, recognizing that this process looks different for everyone. This exploration should not be used to delay access to gender-affirming care or to pathologize transgender identity. Approaches that treat gender exploration as a form of therapy aimed at changing identity—sometimes called conversion practices—are known to cause serious harm and must be avoided. The goal is to support youth in understanding themselves, not to pressure them into conforming to outdated ideas about gender.
Gender-affirming care
Since 1917, transgender people have had options for physical transition, and gender-affirming care today includes hormone therapy and surgery to help align a person’s body with their gender identity. Not every transgender person chooses to transition physically, and there's no one-size-fits-all plan—each person’s needs are different. Preventive health care is an important part of this process, which is why a primary care physician who understands transgender health is recommended for anyone going through transition.
Eligibility
In the 11th version of the International Classification of Diseases, the condition is called gender incongruence, and the ICD-11 makes clear that "gender variant behaviour and preferences alone are not a basis for assigning the diagnosis." In the US, the DSM-5 refers to it as gender dysphoria, though not everyone with this diagnosis wants hormone therapy or surgery. The WPATH Standards of Care, updated to Version 8 in February 2023, define gender dysphoria as distress from a mismatch between gender identity and assigned sex at birth, but note that not all transgender people experience this discomfort. The standards also clarify that gender nonconformity is not the same as dysphoria and does not require treatment. Today, most providers follow an informed consent model, which includes detailed discussions about risks, outcomes, and care options between patient and doctor.
Eligibility for different stages of treatment
The WPATH Standards of Care recommend a mental health assessment as standard practice, though psychotherapy isn’t required. Hormone replacement therapy must be started with a qualified health professional, and the general requirements include persistent, well-documented gender dysphoria, the ability to give informed consent, and reaching the age of majority. If there are significant medical or mental health concerns, they should be reasonably well-controlled. Many clinics require psychological counseling and time spent living in the desired gender role before starting hormones, though some offer treatment based on informed consent alone.
Eligibility of minors
The WPATH standards of care usually require patients to be at least the age of medical majority, but they also have a specific section for children and teens. Prepubescent kids can't get medical help for gender-affirming therapy. After puberty, some treatment is possible for adolescents, based on criteria for diagnosing gender incongruence, understanding informed consent, and overall mental and physical health. A study in JAMA Pediatrics from January 2025 found that fewer than 0.1% of US teens with private insurance are taking gender-affirming medication to manage gender dysphoria.
Read
Free to download, keep and share. For general information only — not professional medical, legal or financial advice. Please consult a qualified professional.